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This article examines how ancient visitors perceived the Greek Parthenon. It suggests that the Parthenon’s interior was likely darker than previously thought and that the gold and ivory statue of Athena was illuminated by lamplight. Researchers utilized advanced 3D modeling and lighting simulations to recreate the original lighting conditions of the temple. The findings challenge the long-held notion that the Parthenon was brightly illuminated, revealing instead that it was intentionally dim, featuring selective lighting to enhance visitors' visual and spiritual experiences. The research highlights how architectural features—such as the temple’s alignment with the sunrise, translucent marble ceilings, and carefully positioned openings—were intricately designed to control light and shadow. The study also contradicts earlier theories suggesting that reflective pools played a significant role in lighting, indicating their more likely purpose was for humidity control or rituals. Ultimately, the research indicates that the combination of darkness and selective lighting heightened feelings of wonder and religious devotion, allowing Athena’s gold-and-ivory statue to appear as if it rose from the shadows. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annual-of-the-british-school-at-athens/article/illuminating-the-parthenon/D0F077C96D199A00C5294CA6B41B42D1 https://phys.org/news/2025-05-3d-demystifies-parthenon-conditions-ancient.html

We are learning about Rome’s interactions with Ireland. An intact Roman pot has been discovered during archaeological excavations near Dublin. A charred fig fragment was found earlier at the site, pointing to possible trade with Rome (see post below). https://www.rte.ie/news/2025/0524/1514758-roman-pot-discovered/ Below is a long-forgotten thread about Rome and Ireland.

https://www.physics.purdue.edu/demos/display_page.php?item=2B-03#:~:text=Four glass tubes of varying,dependent upon vertical height only. "Water seeks its own level." No particularly clever application of physics here. The question becomes why did they bother building aquaducts when a simple pipe or channel at ground level or slightly buried would have sufficed?... I bet they didn't actually know the physics and thought they needed a more gradual, continuous grade to keep the flow going....and when they encountered a terrain too rugged to build an aquaducts, they went with the more expediant "inverted siphon," but when it worked, they didn't extrapolate the principle to the more general case. Maybe they weren't as smart as we think.

A Roman sandstone relief depicting Victoria, the goddess of Victoria, has been unearthed at Vindolanda near Hadrian’s Wall. https://arkeonews.net/1800-year-old-roman-victory-goddess-relief-discovered-near-hadrians-wall-at-vindolanda-fort1800-year-old-roman-victory-goddess-relief-discovered-near-hadrians-wall-at-vindolanda-fort/

Totally cool discovery!

Although the physics of aqueducts may appear straightforward, the actual implementation is very unusual in the ancient world. The Persians, Greeks, and even the Maya and Incas had developed extensive water storage and transport systems. Several Roman innovations, however, allowed more sophisticated engineering projects. Roman concrete allowed for durable structures. The use of a waterproof coating (opus signinum) prevented water leakage, allowing water to travel at a high enough velocity and adequate pressure to create the inverted siphon described above. And of course, the large-scale Roman arch system allowed the transport of water over rugged terrain. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/1/28

-not sure "inverted siphon" is a good term.....A siphon requires a bit of energy input (Eg- actively sucking fluid up a tube to empty a higher reservoir over the lip of it's container into a lower basin, or powering a roller coaster train up that first big hill....once accomplished, gravity takes over). .....As long as the source reservoir is higher than the destination reservoir and there are no higher points along the way, the water will flow......For gravity powered systems, PE + KE = a constant. The Romans could have avoided building the elevated, arched aquaducts if they had adequate piping to contain the very rapid, high pressure flow along the low points of the course. (You'd think stone & cement joints would have done it.)...Maybe they used the elevated sections to avoid tedious tunneling or to avoid blocking traffic with extensive solid walls and save on materials. The engineering physics of aquaducts is pretty simple. The amazing part is the sheer audacity of the first guys (Appius Claudius Caecus & Caius Plautius 312 BC) to think they could bring water from 10 miles away to Rome.

The Delikemmer aqueduct is an impressive example of Roman engineering genius, utilizing the inverted siphon design. But first, some background information. The Delikkemer Aqueduct is located near Patara, Turkey. This aqueduct was part of a 22.5 km (13.5 miles) water system that provided fresh water to the ancient Roman port city of Patara. Instead of relying on arches to span the valley (see picture below), the Delikkemer Aqueduct utilized an inverted siphon system, enabling water to flow through pipes at high pressure, traversing the terrain without the need for elevated bridges. This method proved especially useful in rugged landscapes where constructing towering structures would have been impractical or unstable. Roman engineers perfected this technique, employing precisely cut and sealed stone or lead pipes to prevent leaks and withstand pressure shifts. A traditional aqueduct with an arch: Here's how the inverse siphon works: An inverted siphon is a type of pipeline used to carry liquids, sewage, or water. Unlike a regular siphon, which relies on atmospheric pressure to move liquid up and over an obstacle, an inverted siphon forces liquid downward and then back up using gravity and pressure. How it works: Entry point: The liquid enters the siphon at a higher elevation. Descent: It flows downward through a pipe, gaining velocity. Low point: At the lowest point, pressure builds due to the movement of the liquid. Gradual rise: The liquid is carried back up to the outlet, which is positioned lower than the entry point but higher than the lowest section of the siphon. Gravity and pressure continue to drive the flow toward its final destination. Through the use of the inverted siphon engineering, water was allowed to flow between hills both downhill and uphill without the need for pumps, through gravitational forces and pressure. Picture depicting the inverted siphon with the traditional arched structures to carry water: The use of the inverted siphon could be especially important in earthquake-prone regions, such as Turkey. A good summary article of the Delikemmer Aqueduct (and source of most of the pictures of the Delikkemer Aqueduct) Roman Aqueduct Engineering: The Delikkemer Inverted Siphon Near Patara Along the Lycian Way – Electrum Magazine Note: In Turkish “delik” means hollow and “kemer” means arc or belt. So Delikkemer means hollow arc or belt. A short video describing an inverted siphon:

Syedra, located in southern Turkey, has been a site of previous Roman-era finds (see the earlier post below). Recently, a fifth-century AD mosaic was discovered beneath a suspected ancient olive oil factory. Beneath the mosaic, a cistern measuring five meters (16 feet) in height was also discovered. https://greekreporter.com/2025/05/12/roman-mosaic-cistern-ancient-greek-city-syedra-turkey/

An Iron Age coin hoard comprising 933 gold coins (staters), known as the Great Baddow Hoard, will finally go on display in a museum in Essex, Britain. It is thought that these coins were buried for protection from Roman incursions. This is probably the largest Iron Age gold coin hoard found in Britain. The hoard was initially discovered in 2020, but the finder was arrested for failing to report the find to the local coroner within the required 14 days, as stipulated by the Treasure Act 1996. It is believed that the finder may have listed some coins on eBay. https://www.gazette-news.co.uk/news/25162077.essex-found-iron-age-coins-displayed-museum/ https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cp3nz54eegko

Here's an interesting article on the geopolitical strategy of Augustus and Tiberius. The article reminds us that Suetonius said about Augustus: "He never waged war against any nation without just and necessary causes, and he was so far removed from the desire to expand his power or military glory by any means that he even compelled certain barbarian leaders to swear in the temple of Mars Ultor that they would remain faithful and at peace as they had requested." nec ulli genti sine iustis et necessariis causis bellum intulit tantumque afuit a cupiditate quoquo modo imperium uel bellicam gloriam augendi, ut quorundam barbarorum principes in aede Martis Vltoris iurare coegerit mansuros se in fide ac pace quam peterent. Roman Restraint: Foreign Policy from Augustus to Tiberius – Antigone

A metal detectorist discovered a hoard of 1469 Roman denarii in Letca Nouă, Romania. The coins featured eleven Roman emperors and empresses, including Nero, Aurelius, and Galba. They were found in a broken ceramic vessel. https://amp.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/article304963431.html https://www.fox9.com/news/man-stumbles-across-hoard-priceless-coins-while-out-nature-walk-face-face-history.amp Location of Letca Nouă, Romania, below:

Very interesting. They claim hollow logs were used, but it's a good bet that trees less than a foot or so in diamater are rarely found to be hollowed by natural forces, and any hollowing is usually only a few feet in length, not involving six foot runs as stated in the article...and they'd need to find about 18 such examples to complete a run of piping 100 ft long.....OTOH, that would be quite a trick to manually core out six inch tree stems without an iron of steel auger..... Then again, the aeronautical engineers tell us bumble bees shouldn't be able to fly....??? Space aliens must have done this for the Romans.

A well-preserved Roman-era wooden pipe, dating from the 1st to 3rd century AD, was found in Leuven, Belgium. It was preserved by the water-logged, marshy soil. https://www.belganewsagency.eu/roman-wooden-water-pipe-discovered-in-leuven https://archaeologymag.com/2025/05/roman-wooden-water-pipe-unearthed-in-leuven/ https://interestingengineering.com/culture/roman-wooden-water-pipe-found-belgium

This article describes the interpretation of a 2,000-year-old Greek scroll that was carbonized as a result of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. Using artificial intelligence and X-ray scanning techniques, researchers have successfully identified the scroll’s author as Philodemus, an Epicurean philosopher, and its title as "On Vices." The scroll, designated as PHerc. 172 (see picture below), underwent scanning at the Diamond Light Source, a synchrotron facility located in the United Kingdom, where remnants of ink were detected, allowing scholars to access portions of the text. This remarkable discovery is part of the Vesuvius Challenge, a global initiative launched in 2023 aimed at decoding the Herculaneum papyri without requiring their physical unrolling. AI decodes 2,000-year-old Greek scroll’s secrets without opening it Here's a previous post on the Vesuvius Challenge

Although the Roman Empire did not reach Ireland, there is evidence of trade connections. The charred remains of an ancient fig (pictured above) have been discovered at Drumanagh, a suspected Roman-era trading post near Ireland’s eastern coastline. This indicates an extensive trade network that extended from Southern Europe across the Empire to Ireland. https://www.irishcentral.com/news/archaeologists-fig-drumanagh-dublin https://archaeology.org/news/2024/12/02/2000-year-old-charred-fig-excavated-in-ireland/#:~:text=It is likely that the,also identified at the fort. The Coleraine coin hoard of hundreds of Roman coins (see below) dating to the early 5th century AD suggest some interaction between the Roman Empire and Ireland. Coins found in the hoard range from those minted by Constantius II (the earliest) to those of Honorius (the latest, and also suspected to be an ancient forgery). Interestingly, coins of the usurper Constantine III were also discovered in the hoard.

Here is a follow-up to the post above. Above is a better image of the steelyard weight (a counterweight used on a balance). It takes the form of Silenus, a wise, old drunken satyr who was a companion of Bacchus, the Roman god of wine. https://www.newsandstar.co.uk/news/25139914.discoveries-roman-life-cockermouth-area-revealed/

Excellent example, Guy...a brilliant tactic, but decidedly unusual. Livy frequently describes the common result of a cavalry charge with the words "fundunt et fugiunt"-- literally "they poured out and fled."

The Battle of Pharsalus, fought between Caesar and Pompey in 48 BCE during the Roman Civil War, showed the vulnerability of cavalry trying to defeat well-disciplined legionnaires. Pompey initially had a numerical advantage, particularly in cavalry. He stationed them on his left flank, intending to overwhelm Caesar’s right and roll up his line. Caesar, anticipating this move, had prepared an ingenious counter: he concealed six cohorts of legionnaires behind his right wing, instructing them to hold their ground until the enemy cavalry engaged. As Pompey’s cavalry charged, Caesar’s hidden cohorts sprang into action. Rather than engaging in standard combat by launching their pila (javelins), they targeted their pila directly at the faces of Pompey’s horsemen. This brilliant defensive maneuver disrupted the cavalry’s momentum, and once the legionnaires closed in, the horsemen found themselves trapped in brutal hand-to-hand combat against disciplined infantry. Unable to counter the legionnaires' tight formations and aggressive assault, the cavalry fell into disarray and retreated. Pompey’s left flank was exposed with the routed cavalry, and Caesar’s troops exploited the opening, pushing into the main battle line. The collapse of the cavalry marked a turning point in the battle. Pompey's forces, unable to recover, were systematically crushed, leading to his total defeat. This battle demonstrates how tactical discipline and adaptability enabled legionnaires to triumph over superior cavalry. Interesting podcast on that subject: Dan Carlin's "Hardcore History: Caesar at Hastings" recreates a battle between Caesar's legionnaires and the later Norman cavalry. Battle of Pharsalus - Wikipedia

I bet that's gunna leave a mark. Dumb move. Pollice verso. -- got me thinking....American football players "spike the ball" after scoring a touchdown. Roman gladiators spiked each other.

This is surprising that they took the time (let alone the space) to bury horses instead of simply immolating them as we still do today. The Romans became the greatest civilization with the aid of their invention cement....Imagine what they could have accomplished had they also discovered glue?

During excavations for a new apartment building near Kaiseraugst, Switzerland, a bronze panther figurine was discovered. The excavations were part of the Augusta Raurica, a thriving Roman city between the first and third centuries AD. The city, despite its peak population of only 20,000 inhabitants, did have a large amphitheater (pictured below). https://allthatsinteresting.com/kaiseraugst-switzerland-ancient-roman-settlement https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusta_Raurica

A few thoughts-- An ancient horse was smaller, generally, than a modern one, but still went 8-900 lb, and could go 30 mph....An ancient foot soldier went <150 lb. Wearing clumsy helmet, grieves and lugging a 20 .lb shield, he probably couldn't run 10 mph.....No way could a wall of shields withstand a cavalry change. If bowling pins could run away from an approaching bowling ball, they certainly would ..but then they'd just be running into and trampling each other.....Now complicate that picture by having 10 bowling balls coming down the lane at time. As I read thru Livy, Caesar, etc,it seems to me that most cavalry charges vs foot soldiers were done from the flanks, not as frontal charges.

A 47-year-old American tourist was impaled while attempting to scale a fence at the Colosseum, trying to either get a selfie or have a better view. It took 20 minutes to free the man, who was screaming until he lost consciousness. Fortunately, he survived but required 80 sutures. https://www.lbc.co.uk/world-news/us-tourist-impaled-himself-romes-colosseum-railings-20-minutes-horror-accident/

Over 100 horse skeletons have been discovered near Stuttgart, Germany. These were believed to have been belonged to a Roman castra (military camp) that dated from the early 2nd century AD. An analysis of the horse remains suggest they died at different times. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2025/05/1800-year-old-cemetery-for-roman-calvary-horses-discovered-in-stuttgart-suburb/155143#google_vignette