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They draw a false conclusion....The only thing they can correctly say is that they were infected with Plasmodium sp when they died. The fact that they found two or more sp points toward chronic &/or recurrent infections, very common in that region at that time. A fulminant course of malaria leading to rapid death within days of exposure is less common than a more indolent course resulting in anemia and eventual organ failure. (Cf- Quartan Fever) https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/hcp/clinical-features/index.html

This article was already highlighted in the UNRV newsletter. It reminded me about previous discussions (see post below). It is a good example of sensory archaeology, the branch of archaeology that studies how people in the past experienced the world through their senses (smell, sound, touch, taste, and sight) rather than focusing on objects, architecture, and objects. The article also shows how small residue samples can reveal global economic connections and domestic religious behavior. Pompeii Incense Study Researchers analyzed 2,000-year-old ash residues preserved inside two Roman incense burners from Pompeii and a nearby villa. Techniques like GC-MS and phytolith analysis allowed researchers to identify burned substances and confirm they were heated intentionally. What the ash contained was determined by advanced biomolecular and microscopic techniques: • Local plant materials (wood, grasses, possibly laurel or fruit trees) Exotic aromatic resins from the Burseraceae family-plants native to tropical Africa or Asia and related to frankincense/ elemi Chemical traces of grape products, likely wine, consistent with ritual libations Provides the first direct physical evidence of what Romans actually burned in household religious rituals. Confirms that imported incense was used not only by elites but in ordinary domestic shrines (lararia). Shows that ritual practice involved intentional heating/ burning, verified through biomolecular and microscopic analysis. Implications for global trade The presence of African/Asian resins in ordinary households shows: Pompeii was deeply connected to long-distance trade networks Imported luxury goods were accessible even to non-elite residents Trade routes likely linked India, Arabia, sub-Saharan Africa, Egypt, and Mediterranean ports before reaching Italy The study is a major contribution to sensory archaeology, reconstructing ancient smells, materials, and ritual experiences. https://arkeonews.net/sacred-smoke-and-global-trade-pompeiis-ash-reveals-a-2000-year-old-network/

I'd like to know how the identity of such busts are made and by whom?

Very impressive, and especially without the omnipresent hallmarks of AI generation. It's probably worthy of posting in "Romana Humanitas" or similar section. Beforehand I had wondered what the purpose was of the Alter of Peace. One thing that works as favorable Roman propaganda to me maybe wasn't intentional. I love the prideful memorial sculptures commissioned by freedman (status identifiable from their names) along roads leaving cities or towns. It tells me about their opportunity to thrive in a tough-love system. It reminds me of the the US treasury making plans to change the portraits on future US money about a decade earlier. They announced eliminating "stuffy" founding fathers of high ideals and replace them with new-age victimology figures. There was backlash even from the left in the case of Alexander Hamilton who surprisingly had just become wildly popular in a Broadway play as rising above oppression like Roman slaves. So I guess he will stay on $ symbolizing both right and left ideals, but anyone still using paper money in years forward may also be seeing paraplegic eskimo portraits or whatever.

The Torlonia collection is on its final stop of North America in Montreal this month. The Torlonia collection contains 622 ancient marbles, assembled in the 19th century from aristocratic Roman families (Giustiniani, Albani, Cavaceppi) and Torlonia estate excavations. For decades it was inaccessible, making this tour a landmark event. The Torlonia sculptures now on exhibit form one of the most important Roman sculpture showings in decades: 57 masterpieces from the Torlonia Collection, touring North America for the first time and currently on view at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts (MMFA) until July 19, 2026. The exhibition is historically significant: the Torlonia Collection—long considered the greatest private collection of Roman sculpture—was inaccessible for most of the 20th century, stored away since WWII and known mainly through 19th‑century catalogues. Its recent restoration and release to the public is one of the major events in Roman art scholarship. Here is a good video review about the exhibit while previously in Fort Worth at the Kimbell Art Museum earlier this year: Here is a short video of the exhibit now in Montreal:

The article below about the reopening of the House of Carbonized Furniture at Herculaneum made me wonder: Why were wooden objects preserved at Herculaneum in AD 79 (and not at Pompeii)? Pictured above and below are some of the wooden objects preserved there. The wood did not burn because the pyroclastic surge that hit Herculaneum was not the same type that destroyed Pompeii. Instead of open-air ash fall, Herculaneum was engulfed by a 20‑meter‑deep mass of superheated pyroclastic mud. Temperatures reached ~400 °C, hot enough to carbonize wood but—critically—oxygen was almost completely absent. At Herculaneum, when the first pyroclastic surge struck the town, it produced carbonized wood. The surge raised temperatures to around 300–500 °C, but it contained almost no oxygen. In such conditions, wood doesn’t burn; instead, it undergoes a process called carbonization. This is a chemical change that drives off volatile compounds, leaving behind a stable, charcoal-like material. Because the surge quickly buried the buildings and sealed them beneath meters of hot material, beams, doors, furniture, shelving, and even architectural panels were remarkably preserved in their original shapes, only transformed into carbon. This process accounts for the incredible preservation of many wooden objects at the site. On the ancient shores of Herculaneum, a different preservation process took place (see the picture below). Waterlogged wood creates a very unique environment for preservation. In several parts of the site, especially where volcanic mudflows and wet deposits settled, timber was buried in saturated, oxygen-poor layers rather than being heated enough to turn into charcoal. When submerged in this special anaerobic environment, decay-causing organisms couldn't thrive, allowing the wood to stay chemically 'alive.' It kept its cellular structure, species features, and even tiny growth rings. That's why archaeologists can tell the difference between fir, cypress, and spruce at the site: the wood wasn’t burned or charred but preserved through long-term saturation. Above are a boat prow painted red and a vertical winch (used to pull boats ashore), both wonderfully preserved. Pompeii’s wood mostly burned or decayed over time, but Herculaneum’s unique circumstances—such as higher temperatures, deeper burial, and lack of oxygen—preserved the world’s largest collection of Roman wooden artifacts. You can find doors, beds, shelves, roof beams, furniture, and even carbonized scrolls there. https://www.ansa.it/english/news/2026/07/10/herculaneums-house-of-the-carbonized-furniture-reopens-after-30-years_26911e38-10bd-434f-8f29-da719b60a565.html https://the-past.com/feature/wooden-wonders-of-herculaneum/ Below is an interesting video from Darius Arya highlighting the wooden objects preserved at Herculaneum.

Gildas (AD 450 or 500-c570) is foundational for understanding the collapse of Roman Britain because he is the earliest surviving British voice describing the period after Rome withdrew. Every later medieval historian—Bede, Nennius, the Anglo‑Saxon Chronicle—depends on him. Without Gildas, our picture of 5th‑century Britain would be dramatically thinner. This article explains how medieval Britons remembered the fall of Roman Britain, focusing on the 6th‑century writer Gildas, whose account shaped all later narratives. It shows that medieval memory of Rome’s departure blended history, trauma, and legend, and that some of Gildas’s claims align with contemporary Roman sources. Gildas wrote De Excidio Britanniae (shown above) around AD 540, making him the first British author to describe the post‑Roman world from inside Britain rather than from Rome or Gaul. No earlier British chronicles survive from the period of AD 410–540. Gildas identifies the usurper Maximus (AD 383) as the figure who removed Britain’s troops, effectively beginning the end of Roman rule. He highlights the AD 410 message from Emperor Honorius telling Britons to defend themselves, marking the official end of Roman administration: Gildas writes that after repeated appeals for military help, “the Romans told them to look to their own defence, and no longer to expect help from them,” a line that marks the moment Britain was formally abandoned and forced to face Saxon pressure without imperial protection. Gildas describes the later Battle of Mount Badon (around AD 495 or 500) as a decisive victory in which the Britons defeated the Saxons, ending decades of warfare and ushering in a generation of peace. https://share.google/xievpPhoTFyOUWTmJ

Magister Craft's take on the baths M

True spy thriller in Naples: "How I caught an Illegal Russian Spy" only on youtube but with 6k comments urging Netflix to adopt it. Prize winning journalist tracks down honeytrap spy trolling Naples Nato base officials for blackmail potential due to illicit romance or finances. Found due to her fraudulent passport number being in sequence with known spy assassins and kidnappers. Her several fake identities tied together via ID chip in her cat. I always suspected one of the top U.S. youtube publisher of the ancient and modern around greater Naples of being a history teacher for K-12 schools of that Nato base. Sounded like such a nice gig, but now can see threats of sinister or sometimes buffoon operatives. P.S. not in the headlines for murder so much today because spys get the same reward for dead or alive (kidnapped into Russia):

Archaeologists digging near Binyamina in Israel uncovered two remarkably well-preserved Roman marble statues dating to roughly 1,700 years ago. They were found in a collection pit used for a Roman–Byzantine winepress. Rather than being displayed as originally intended, they had been carefully laid face-down in the pit, suggesting they were intentionally buried after the winepress ceased operation. The sculptures are marble protomes—heads and upper torsos—depicting figures from the Greco-Roman era. One statue bears a Greek inscription with the name “Lycurgus,” and researchers are trying to determine whether it represents Lycurgus of Sparta or Lycurgus of Athens, both well-known historical figures. The statues were first noticed when an unusual object emerged from the soil; further digging revealed marble instead of the usual pottery fragments found at such sites. Their quality suggests a considerable investment in imported art, likely originally displayed in a public building or an elite household in Caesarea, where similar portrait sculptures have been discovered — although such finds are rare, with the last comparable discovery dating back to the 1990s. The statues are now undergoing cleaning, conservation, and detailed study, including efforts to determine their original placement and the reason they were deliberately hidden for nearly seventeen centuries. 1,700-year-old Roman marble statues found buried in ancient winepress near Caesarea | Archaeology News Online Magazine

A marble bust of the Roman goddess Venus was discovered during beach restoration work on the Spanish beach of La Almadraba in Alicante. The bust dates from the 1st-2nd century AD. https://www.jpost.com/archaeology/article-899027

The article below about the use of mushrooms in antiquity made me think of Ötzi (pictured above) who lived 5300 years ago and whose mummified remains were found in 1991 on the Alps between Italy and Austria. https://www.theglobalist.com/mushrooms-from-ancient-foraging-to-modern-obsession/ Ötzi was found with two types of fungi. One fungus found was Fomes fomentarius (the tinder fungus or hoof fungus), which he carried as processed amadou for fire‑starting and ember transport. Also found was Fomitopsis betulina (the birch polypore), likely used for its medicinal and anti‑parasitic properties. Both fungi were found among his equipment. The Romans ate porcini, which they called boleti, a category that included Boletus edulis (modern porcini) and closely related species. Roman writers like Pliny and Apicius describe them as prized, rich, and luxurious mushrooms. They also ate truffles, which Roman authors such as Juvenal and Pliny describe as elite delicacies associated with wealth, aphrodisiac qualities, and extravagant banquets. Both porcini‑type boletes and truffles were staples of high‑status Roman cuisine, alongside Amanita caesarea and morels. According to the major Roman historians, Claudius was killed in AD 54 by a dish of poisoned mushrooms, almost certainly boleti. The plot was widely attributed to his wife Agrippina the Younger, who wanted her son Nero to succeed Claudius before Claudius’s own son Britannicus came of age.

https://youtu.be/tecP_O1qQoM?si=6gxG-TNVcBQJTPIP Magister Craft on The House of the Surgeon in Pompeii

How does this stuff get published? They analyzed data from 258 individuals who lived over a span of 250+ years and expect us to believe those detailed demographic characterizations. ???? The only thing they should credibly conclude is that people in the small sample buried there tended to be older if they lived after 476 AD.....and we don't know anything about those who didn't wind up in these graveyards (which was probably the majority of the population).

That last video has such a wretched AI style, but I wish AI would enumerate logical possibilities beyond we-are-thieves stereotype morality tale. For my perspective, I have read German memoirs of 1930's and 40's over 1000's of hours which should have been consumable to AI in a couple seconds. Looted by whom, let's consider possibilities that could and did occur. Maybe looted by the original museum in 1920s, or by a Nazi official taking it in exchange for an exit visa for a wealthy Jewish family in 1930s. Or liberated post bombing by a starving German family to trade for food other than the fare of decaying shrapnel-ridden horses. There was frantic such foraging towards the end, and why would a valuable sit available from bombing until later occupation? Finally maybe formally registered 1945 as war booty by a US soldier, who was allowed to request silverware, cameras, jewelry, weapons, etc. I think the last two likely and while the latter stretches certain ideals, compare organized looting by German henchmen, sometimes for public display. For instance Hitler unlike Goering paid for every artwork, which he aimed to install in a hometown Austrian museum. These US soldiers who may have stretched war booty rules were pretty altruistic about what they risked their lives to accomplish. They put a stop to tough adversaries who on average killed 7 to 11 victims per German soldier (I forget which, but Japanese soldiers killed 7-11 mostly Chinese civilians each, and German soldiers killed 7-11 mostly Russian civilians each).

A pre-Columbian Bolivian mummy was found to contain Streptococcus pyogenes, the bacteria that cause strep throat. It proves that the infection was already present in the Americas before European contact. Interestingly, 4000-year-old European samples have also shown the infection. Although never found in Roman DNA, Galen, Celsus, and other Roman physicians describe an erysipelas-like infection, usually caused by Streptococcus. The sharply demarcated redness and rapidly spreading swelling associated with fever that characterized erysipelas is described by Galen and other ancient physicians (pictured below): Streptococcus was one of the known infections to impact both the Romans and the Americas. Many virulent infections are thought to be confined to Europe rather than the pre-Columbian Americas: smallpox, measles, influenza, typhus, etc. The standard epidemiological narrative holds that the New World lacked epidemic-scale pathogens because it lacked the population density and animal domestication that drove the evolution of Old World diseases. But the Eurac study shows S. pyogenes, a globally distributed, human-to-human pathogen capable of causing scarlet fever, toxic shock, and invasive infections, was already circulating in Indigenous South American populations between AD 1283-1383. This means at least one “Old World‑type” pathogen did not arrive with Europeans. The article shows that the Old World–New World disease divide was real but not absolute. At least one major pathogen long assumed to be European was already present in the Americas centuries before contact, revealing a more entangled and ancient global disease history than previously believed. https://www.eurac.edu/en/press/the-bacterium-responsible-for-scarlet-fever-was-not-introduced-to-the-americas-by https://archaeology.org/news/2026/04/21/scarlet-fever-bacterium-detected-in-700-year-old-tooth/

April 21-- the traditional birthday of Rome. Originally a community of shepherds, the day corresponds to the traditional holiday celebrating the god of shepherds, Pales, hence, the celebration was called the Parilia. https://youtu.be/rSxGLtN1ClE?si=oalm_kqCS1L2ZJhf (click the cc for English subtitles)

There are many videos on finds from recent Rome Metro station excavations and how they will be showcased, but this one takes a broad picture over the long term. While the train tunnels dive below archeological layers, the stations with associated shafts to surface have bumped into sprawling features whose preservation in place will rival the largest underground museum space in the world except the Louvre. It isn't a Metro project with a spinoff of archeology, but Europe's largest archeo digs with a spinoff of (delayed) metro project:

Gaius Appuleius Diocles (AD 104 till at least 146) may have been Ancient Rome’s most successful (and wealthiest) sports figure. A monument made in his honor at his retirement states: ‘Gaius Appuleius Diocles, charioteer of the Red stable, a Lusitania Spaniard by birth, age 42 years, 7 months, 23 days.’ ‘He raced four horse chariots [similar to the scene above from “Ben-Hur”] for 24 years.’ His earnings are recorded to have been 35,863,120 sesterces. This is equivalent to hundreds of millions of dollars today. Achievements (Unmatched in Antiquity) • Total Races & Wins Number Total races started 4,257 Total victories 1,462-1,463 Second-place finishes 1,438 Wins in single-entry races 1,064 Wins in the most prestigious opening race 110 Chariot racing was the single most popular sport in Ancient Rome, surpassing even gladiatorial combat in scale, frequency, and cultural impact. The Circus Maximus drew crowds in the hundreds of thousands, and Romans devoted far more festival days to racing than to any other form of entertainment. The Circus Maximus could hold 150,000-250,000 spectators, making it the largest sports venue in the ancient world. Some estimates suggest 200,000+ people attended major race days More Race Days Than Any Other Sport Rome scheduled around 60 days per year for chariot racing. Gladiatorial games, by contrast, had about 10 days annually. Below is a short video describing this incredible athlete: https://earlychurchhistory.org/entertainment/diocles-the-most-successful-charioteer/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Appuleius_Diocles

...or maybe the guy was just a big fan....It's not unusual today for a fanatic to get buried in the jersey of his favorite team.

This is an interesting article about the fascinating frescoes at the Pompeian property of the House of the Thiasus, named after the term for a Dionysian procession. The article describes the discovery, excavation, and interpretation of a spectacularly decorated Dionysian dining hall in a massive Pompeian residence now called the House of the Thiasus. Its vivid frescoes-painted between 40-30 B.C.-depict ecstatic followers of Dionysus, violent maenads, and lavish food imagery, offering new insight into Pompeii's deep, centuries-long engagement with the mystery cult of Dionysus. One of the article's most important contributions is showing that Pompeii's relationship with Dionysus was: Older than previously thought More pervasive across social classes More deeply tied to household religion than to public cult This article contrasts the findings of the House of the Thiasus (located in Pompeii) and the Villa of the Mysteries (located outside the city walls) House of the Thiasus Located inside Pompeii, embedded in an elite urban neighborhood. Part of a massive townhouse complex, renovated repeatedly to project status. The Dionysian room is one chamber within a multifunctional domestic environment. Villa of the Mysteries A suburban villa outside the city walls. A self-contained estate with agricultural, residential, and ritual spaces. The famous fresco room is part of a villa designed for retreat, leisure, and elite display. Implication: The House of the Thiasus shows Dionysian ritual inside the everyday fabric of city life, not just in secluded villas. The Villa of the Mysteries is a Dionysian initiation environment— a place where individuals underwent symbolic transformation through a structured ritual narrative. Both are Dionysian, but they represent two different faces of the god: Dionysus the bringer of ecstasy and abundance (House of the Thiasus) Dionysus the initiator into mystery and rebirth (Villa of the Mysteries) https://archaeology.org/issues/march-april-2026/features/pompeiis-house-of-dionysian-delights/ Here is a previous thread on the find from early information:

The pathway from the Imperial Palace to the imperial box at the Colosseum will now be accessible to the public. This hidden emperors’ route is known as the “Commodus Passage.” The Commodus Passage—a long-hidden imperial corridor beneath the Colosseum—is scheduled to open to the public for the first time on October 27, 2025, marking a major milestone in Roman archaeology and conservation. 🏛️ Historical Significance Named after Emperor Commodus (161–192 AD). The passage linked the imperial box inside the Colosseum directly to the outside world, enabling emperors and elite dignitaries to enter unseen by the public. It was not part of the original Flavian construction (72–80 AD), but was added later by excavating underneath the amphitheatre’s foundations. 🧱 Restoration and Features Rediscovered and excavated in the 19th century, but remained closed to the public until now. Restoration completed in September 2025, funded by the Colosseum Archaeological Park and Italy’s National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP). Visitors will see: Marble-clad walls with traces of ancient metal clamps. Stucco vaults depicting mythological scenes (e.g., Dionysus and Ariadne). Painted plaster showing arena spectacles. A tactile map and video reconstructions to aid accessibility. 🚶 Public Access and Experience Entry will be limited to small groups of eight, similar to the panoramic elevator system. About 30 meters of the passage are currently open, with plans to extend access further in 2026. Visitors can observe live restoration work through a glass door at the end of the tour, combining public engagement with conservation efforts. https://www.ansa.it/english/news/2025/10/07/commodus-passage-opens-to-public-for-first-time_015e0962-c0cf-4dbe-9a1c-02bc9f253aff.html Below is an excellent video by Ryan Garrett about this tunnel and he examines other possible roles of this tunnel.

The Passage of Commodus has finally been opened to the public. This article is a follow-up to an earlier post (see the post above). Colosseum Archaeological Park — Rome The article announces the first-ever public opening of the Passage of Commodus, the hidden corridor Roman emperors used to enter the Colosseum unseen. After a major restoration, roughly 30 meters of the passage are now accessible. Key Points The Passage is a secret imperial corridor leading directly to the emperor’s box in the Colosseum. 1. Restoration Highlights Marble-clad walls restored, with visible traces of ancient metal clamps. Stucco vault decorations depicting Dionysus, Ariadne, and arena scenes (see picture below). Painted plaster and reconstructed vault sections recreate the original play of light. A tactile map and digital reconstructions help visitors understand lost iconography. 2. Accessibility & Visitor Experience Restoration funded partly through Italy’s National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP). It was made handicap-accessible with a retractable staircase. Small groups of eight visitors at a time may enter Visitors can watch ongoing restoration work through a glass door at the end of the route. 3. Where the Passage Led (Still Unknown) Two main hypotheses: - It was connected to the imperial palaces on the Palatine Hill. - It was linked to the Ludus Magnus, the gladiators’ training complex. Inside the Colosseum’s Passage of Commodus, where emperors once walked | Popular Science

Here is a map of Hannibal's route thru Spain although it probably is speculation, biased by a presumption that coastal lowlands aren't as rugged as they are. Then a topographic map showing inland Cordoba is indeed on a river valley coming close in the east to another river snaking east thru mountains. But again those valleys may be really rugged. So IMHO even if 100 elephants were led thru and occasionally died in Spain it seems unlikely to find any ancient death site vs souvenir pieces spread far and wide.

(Scene of Brutus feasting with Cato and Pompey while besieging Caesar from the HBO series “Rome.”) The above video made me wonder: How did Romans preserve food for storage and long journeys? Here are a few ways: 🏺 Core Preservation Methods Salting: One of the most widespread preservation methods, salting drew moisture from meat and fish, slowing bacterial growth. Romans relied heavily on this technique for pork, fish, and even certain vegetables. Smoking: Meat and fish were suspended over low, smoldering fires. The smoke dehydrated the food while infusing it with antimicrobial compounds and distinctive flavors. Pickling: Many foods were preserved by submerging them in brine, vinegar, or a combination of both. This method worked especially well for vegetables, fruits, and some meats. Drying: Fruits, meats, and grains were commonly dried in the sun or wind. The warm, dry Mediterranean climate made dehydration a particularly effective and accessible technique. Storing in oil or honey: Items such as fruits, cheeses, and even prepared dishes could be submerged in olive oil or honey to limit air exposure and slow spoilage. Fermentation: Certain foods, most famously garum (a fermented fish sauce), were preserved through controlled decomposition aided by salt. This process created long-lasting, nutrient-rich condiments. Cool storage: Wealthier Romans sometimes used deep cellars, snow pits, or imported ice to keep food cool. While effective, this method was limited to those with the resources to maintain such facilities. 🍇 Why These Methods Worked Roman preservation techniques focused on controlling moisture, acidity, salt concentration, and exposure to air—the same scientific principles that underpin modern food preservation. These methods were essential for sustaining large urban populations and provisioning armies, enabling food to travel long distances and remain edible across changing seasons. A previous post on Roman cool storage: Here is a longer video on Roman food preservation:

The Basilica of Vitruvius has been discovered in Fano, Italy. Vitruvius was the great Roman architect of the first century BCE. The basis for the claim is Vitruvius himself, who described this specific building in De Architectura, the only structure he attributes to himself. https://arkeonews.net/archaeologists-confirm-fano-discovery-as-vitruvius-legendary-basilica-a-turning-point-for-classical-architecture/ Archaeologists state that the uncovered ruins correspond to the proportions, layout, and architectural features Vitruvius described for the basilica. These features include a rectangular public building, along with consistent dimensions and structural elements. Here is Vitruvius’ description of the structure: https://share.google/JZKoQhGBTuwm3QfVw

I like this video history of why some gladiator types were phased out and in:

https://ancientromelive.org/about/ is fundraising for it's educational activities, and has set up a tax deductible way for Americans to do this thru nonprofit https://ancientromelive.org/support/. But they don't mention an especially painless way to do this which is a Transfer-On-Death provision to financial accounts such as retirement or bank. I have done this easily online, allocating various percentages to people and non-profits, with backups in case some recipients expire. As I understand this is put into action with death certificate long before probate and wills, and can be updated without witnesses (but confirm all independently) To set up you will need the EIN number, and the exact name of American Institute...

A first century AD marble Roman-era bathtub was discovered in Ephesus, Turkey. It is thought to have been for wealthy domestic use. The bathtub was later repurposed as a fountain trough, with holes cut to allow water to flow in from above and out from below. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkiye/roman-era-marble-bathtub-male-statue-unearthed-at-ancient-ephesus-in-turkish-aegean-region/3772011

Seven skeletons have been discovered in a well in Osijek, Croatia (near ancient Mursa), and are believed to be Roman soldiers from the last half of the third century AD. The date was confirmed by carbon dating and a coin minted in AD 251 of Decius' son Hostilian. The deaths may have resulted from a battle in Mursa (AD 260), fought between Gallienus and the usurper Ingenuus. During that battle, Ingenuus was defeated by Gallienus’s cavalry, commanded by Aureolus. (Below is a link to that forgotten battle) A closer look at this discovery may reveal fascinating insights into legionary life. The seven skeletons were all adult males: four young adults and three middle-aged. They were first discovered in 2011, and the results of their analysis were released in the fall of 2025. The skeletons showed bone stress markers typical of trained soldiers. The average height was 172.5 cm (five feet, 8 inches). The lack of armor or other personal items suggests that these bodies were members of the losing Ingenuus’ forces. The lack of memorial stones or other markers supports the belief. Evidence of puncture wounds was found on the skeletons (shown below: sounds on the upper sternum and posterior side of the right hip): https://archaeologymag.com/2025/10/skeleton-filled-well-in-croatia-reveals-roman-soldiers/ https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/seven-skeletons-found-in-a-croatian-well-were-likely-ancient-roman-soldiers-who-died-during-a-troubled-time-for-the-empire-180987566/ Remains of Seven Roman Soldiers Fallen in the Battle of Mursa in 260 CE Found in a Well in Croatia The scientific article on the find: 🧾 Key Findings Archaeological context: Excavated in 2011 at Mursa, a Roman colony in Pannonia. The grave held seven fully articulated skeletons deposited at the same time. Radiocarbon dating indicates the burial occurred between 240–340 CE, aligning with mid-3rd century events. A coin minted under Emperor Hostilian (251 CE) was found in the fill, supporting the dating. Demography & health: All individuals were adult males, aged 18 to 50, with an average height of approximately 172.5 cm. Pathologies included vertebral changes, dental disease, and stress markers such as cribra orbitalia and enamel hypoplasia. Evidence of healed injuries indicated previous combat exposure. Two skeletons exhibited perimortem trauma from sharp weapons (puncture wounds in the manubrium and ilium, as well as cuts on the ribs and humerus). Dietary evidence (stable isotopes): The diet mainly consisted of C3 plants (possibly wheat and barley, the main components of Roman military rations) and C4 plants (possibly millet, widely grown in Central/Eastern Europe and used in Roman diets), with limited terrestrial animal protein. Very low marine protein consumption, aligning with the inland Roman military diet. Genetic analysis (aDNA): Four individuals yielded usable genome-wide data. Results showed heterogeneous ancestry, including Northern/Central European, Eastern European (Pontic-Caspian), and Eastern Mediterranean genetic components. No continuity with the local Early Iron Age population, suggesting they were non-local recruits. Distinct paternal haplogroups (N1a1, R1b1, I2a1b, I1a3a1) confirmed diversity. ⚖️ Interpretation The combination of male-only burial, combat injuries, strong physiques, and diverse backgrounds clearly indicates these were Roman soldiers. The burial probably indicates casualties from a major military event, most likely the Battle of Mursa in 260 CE, when Emperor Gallienus defeated the usurper Ingenuus. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0333440 The Battle of Mursa 260 AD - Free Source Library

Ignore, having issues with other forums this morning i.e. not able to bring up pages, post etc. Thanks.

In reading The Aeneid again recently, in particular the end of Book IV where Dido kills herself with Aeneas' sword. Vergil doesn't use the word "gladius."...and as I thought about it, it was apparent he rarely uses the word gladius in the whole work..... The Perseus site has a tool showing word frequencies among the common Latin works of lit.... https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/wordfreq?lookup=Ensis&lang=la Vergil usually uses words like "ensis," "ferrum" (cf- our "steel") or "arms" (arms). More rare words like pugio (dagger), sica (knife as a murder weapon) or culter (cutting edge, as in our cultivate) occur only once or twice in every 10-20,000 words. According to the Perseus tool, Vergil uses gladius only 9 times in the whole Aeneid. Livy uses it 96x in Ab Urbe Condita (Books 1-10) while Caesar uses it 24x in his Gallic Wars, a shorter work. For the word ferrum-- Livy 169x....Vergil 174x....Caesar 43x Arma-- Livy 750x ...Livy 554....Caesar 182 and Ensis-- Livy only once...Caesar not at all....and Vergil 63 times....so I guess we're justified in calling "ensis" a poetic word for sword.

Certainly an impressive curriculum vitae.....but we could turn this into a discussion like the classic one in American baseball history-- who was the best center fielder, Mickey, Willy or The Duke? If you were chosing up sides for a stick ball game in the street, you couldn't go wrong no matter who you chose. Other Roman soldiers of notable bravery mentioned by Livy-- Horatio Cocles, Gaius Mucous Scaevola, Marcus Furious Camillus, and even a woman, Cloelia, who bravely led other women & children hostages to freedom back across the Tiber. Eg- https://pjmedia.com/spencer-klavan/2014/08/11/the-10-most-badass-roman-war-heroes-n154853#google_vignette In the account given by Guy above, Livy at least has the honesty to state that the speech is reproduced "as handed down to us" (a more direct translation from the Latin "fertur" in the original)....Livy says in his introductory remarks to Ab Urbe... that perhaps we should regard the stories coming from ancient authors as works of poetry rather than factual documents. Pretty smart cookie. Dionysius of Halicanarssus, OTOH, reproduces speeches on a regular basis that are pages long as if a stenographer were always present to record things in a Congressional Record. His work reads more like an historical novel than a credible history.

Pressure mounting due to sensing the crumbling resolve of western civilization, with it's woke readiness to appease in a spirit of suicidal empathy. Egypt has long been on the brink of radical islamic takeover (think Afghan buddha demolition or Syria Roman destruction), and suffered thousands of artifacts looted from museums and archeo sites in 2011 revolution. Still there are a six figure surfeit of items remaining under the watch of tiresome Z. Hawass, whose "reinstatement sparked protests from museum workers and archaeologists, who struck in April 2011 demanding his removal over alleged cronyism and suppression of dissent within the antiquities sector" according to https://grokipedia.com/page/Zahi_Hawass Let's stiffen our spine and preserve selected hieroglyphs and Greek sculptures in the 1st rather than exclusively 2nd or 3rd world! Look how much Egypt benefited by the stone laying around France and England for scholars to eventually solve the puzzle. Think how many hieroglyphs have meanwhile been sandblasted in Egypt. Egypt is awash in same-theme artifacts as is Greece in same-theme artifacts. Maybe they should instead ask for donation of artifacts from outside-civilizations for local museums for diversity and education. (Athens does have a cool Hellenic Air Force museum if you are need a change of pace or the regulars are on strike.) Following graph shows world bank estimate of negative Egyptian political stability:

4 years into restoration of medieval tower, it partially collapsed. When rescue workers gesture they have found a survivor, the cheers of crowd appear to trigger further collapse which results in death of worker. Italian news site full of finger pointing that may take a while to sort out. I can't embed dramatic video due to busy factor, so click on https://youtu.be/VuolVj6K0Yk?si=RhGm7pXfvDvmQ83W or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IsYSCGaWWbA

Hi everyone, My name is Stuart, I’ve just released the first episode of a documentary series exploring Ancient Rome—not just its history, but the aesthetic and ideological machinery that shaped public perception. It’s a project built entirely with free software and a lot of sweat, aiming to fuse historical themes with modern parallels of belief, spectacle, and control. We’ve gone to great lengths to ensure every visual element is ethically sourced and deeply thematic—from guilloche patterns to red vellum textures—echoing Roman ritual while reflecting modern systems of ceremony. Crafted with care, this first episode explores how spectacle, ritual, and belief shaped public life in Ancient Rome—and what it reveals about power today. This first episode is a foundation for a larger series that will move from symbol to system, exploring the interplay between spectacle and truth. If you’re drawn to the intersection of history, ideology, and visual storytelling, I’d be honoured if you gave it a watch and shared your thoughts. 👉 (And if you’ve worked on similar projects, I’d love to hear how you approached your themes. Dialogue beats duplication.)

http://www.circusmaximus.us/varianus.html If we assume the width of the modern streets, from building to building, is 10m, then it looks like the length of the superimposed circus varianus in the aerial photo paces out to be ~ 600m...just about the length of the C Max. ...judging by the size of the cars in the photo, that's probably a good estimate. For comparison, the Stadium Domitianum (now Piazza Navona) was https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadium_of_Domitian 275m x 105m, and the Circus Flaminius (3rd cent BC) was 300m. https://books.google.com/books?id=couetXBQO9AC&pg=PA543#v=onepage&q&f=false Another comparison for perspective-- the Piazza Del Popolo, sight of Sienna's famous biennial horse race is about 150m x 250m.

There have been numerous posts before discussing the possible cause of the Justinian Plague that devastated the Byzantine Empire (AD 541-760). By using targeted DNA analysis of eight human teeth excavated from burial chambers beneath a former Roman hippodrome in Jerash, Egypt, researchers have successfully sequenced the genetic material matching Yersinia pestis, the cause of the later famous “Bubonic Plague” that ravaged Europe several centuries later. 🦠 Rewriting the Origins of the First Pandemic: The Plague of Justinian Two landmark studies—one published in Genes and another by USF Health—have finally provided direct genomic evidence of Yersinia pestis, the bacterium behind the Plague of Justinian (541–750 CE), in the Eastern Mediterranean, near the pandemic’s historical epicenter. 🔍 Key Discoveries: Site of Discovery: A mass grave beneath the Roman hippodrome in Jerash, Jordan (ancient Gerasa), just 330 km from Pelusium, where the plague was first recorded. Genetic Confirmation: DNA from eight teeth showed nearly identical Y. pestis strains across five individuals, indicating a swift, localized outbreak. Historical Significance: This represents the first genomic evidence of plague within the Byzantine Empire, filling a significant gap between historical records and biological confirmation. Virulence Factors: The Jerash strain possesses key genes (Ymt, Pla, F1 capsule) related to flea transmission and epidemic potential, linking it to other First Pandemic strains. Evolutionary Context: The pathogen did not originate from a single ancestral strain but repeatedly emerged from zoonotic reservoirs—unlike viruses such as SARS-CoV-2. https://www.usf.edu/health/news/2025/usf-research-rewrites-origins-of-first-pandemic.aspx https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4425/16/8/926

A Roman helmet was discovered at the site of the Battle of Aegates off the western coast of Sicily. The battle, in March 241 BCE, was the final and deciding Roman victory of the 23-year-long First Punic War against the Carthaginians (see previous post below). Archaeologists have uncovered a remarkably well-preserved Roman Montefortino helmet off the western coast of Sicily, near the Aegadian Islands, dating back to the First Punic War (264–241 BC). This conflict marked the beginning of Rome’s long struggle with Carthage for control of the western Mediterranean. Key Highlights: Helmet Type: Montefortino, known for its conical bronze form, mushroom-shaped knob, flared rim, and neck guard. It was standard Roman military gear from approximately 300 BC to the 1st century AD. Condition: Intact, with both cheekpieces preserved—a rare find for underwater artifacts. Battle Context: Likely from the Battle of the Aegates (241 BC), the decisive naval engagement that ended the First Punic War and gave Rome control of Sicily. Ongoing Survey: Sicily’s Superintendency of the Sea has been conducting underwater studies for over 15 years, uncovering a treasure trove of artifacts, including bronze rams (rostra), weapons, and other helmets. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2025/09/intact-roman-helmet-from-first-punic-war-discovered/155936 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates

Here’s an interesting academic article on the Roman frontiers. I think we previously viewed the frontier too simply, either as a rigid defensive barrier or as a porous gate that only controlled commerce. Breeze offers a more nuanced view of the frontiers and how their roles changed depending on regional needs, political pressures, and hostilities. Here is a list of the traditional 21 functions of the Roman frontier that Breeze examines: Defence against major invasions (Daniels 1979: 360; Bidwell 2005: 74, 2008: 142) Protection against raiding (Bidwell 2005: 74; Breeze 2011: 189–190; Hanson 2014, 7–8) To protect travellers in the frontier zone (Rushworth 1996: 303) To control civilian movement (Breeze and Dobson 2000: 40) In North Africa, to control transhumance (Daniels 1987: 244; Cherry 1998: 59–66) A customs barrier and passport control point (Cherry 1998: 59–66) An exercise to keep the troops busy (James 2013: 159) To keep the peace in a volatile area where the construction of the frontier had incited attacks (Isaac 1990: 214–215) To put the soldiers somewhere when towns were not available (Hodgson 1989: 177–189) To protect the soldiers (Cherry 1998: 59–66) A shield to allow the peaceful development of the province (Birley 1956) The creation of a stable frontier (Shotter 1996: 70) A statement of Hadrian’s commitment to ‘imperial containment’ (Everitt 2009: 225) A base for operations beyond the frontier (Bruce 1863: 26; Perowne 1960: 86–87) A reflection of Rome’s failure to conquer the rest of the world (Mann 1974: 508) A (psychological) edge to the empire for the Romans (Sommer 2015: 50–51) A piece of rhetoric (Mann 1990: 53) A symbol to intimidate the enemy (Robertson 1979: 34; Crow 1991: 59; Driessen 2005; Mattingly 2006: 158) In the case of Hadrian’s Wall, to build a monument to Hadrian (Breeze and Dobson 2000: 32) A symbolic act of building (DeLaine 2002: 220–221; Breeze and Ferris 2016: 27–29) To keep the soldiers fit (Forster 1915) 🔍 Central Thesis Breeze argues that Roman frontier studies have been sidelined in UK academic circles because of post-colonial discomfort with imperialism, militarism, and violence. However, he maintains that these studies are crucial for understanding Rome’s relationships with neighboring peoples, how its military operated, and the broader dynamics of empire. 📉 Why Frontier Studies Fell Out of Favor Post-Colonial Sensitivities: Modern scholars often see Roman imperialism as morally problematic, which makes them hesitant to study its military system. Breeze argues that ignoring violence skews historical understanding. Perceived Exhaustion of Hadrian’s Wall Research: Some believe that most questions about Hadrian’s Wall have already been answered. Breeze refutes this, noting that early researchers only solved the problems they defined, leaving much unexplored. Shift Toward Social History: There is a growing focus on indigenous agency and colonial discourse. Breeze agrees that this is important but contends that frontier studies can also play a valuable role in advancing these aims. Criticism of Narrow Focus: Roman frontier scholars are sometimes perceived as overly fixated on details. Breeze defends detailed study as the foundation for broader insights, as long as it doesn’t turn into pedantry. Historians often overlook frontier archaeology, considering it inconclusive or irrelevant. Breeze refers to this as “limes denial” and advocates for combining archaeological evidence with textual sources. 🧭 What Frontier Studies Can Reveal Military deployment patterns at frontier installations reflect Rome’s strategic priorities, local geography, and perceived threats. For example, the Danube frontier shows dense fortifications in fertile, accessible areas. Dacia’s Mountain Defense Roman deployment in Dacia utilized natural geography (the Carpathians) to observe and react to threats, demonstrating adaptive frontier planning. Hadrian’s Wall as Case Study Breeze highlights two distinct phases of construction: Phase 1: Milecastles and turrets for controlling movement. Phase 2: Forts added astride the Wall, increasing mobility and suggesting readiness for field operations north of the barrier. The addition of the Vallum (a rear ditch and bank system) further restricted civilian movement, implying a closed frontier system. Breeze provides a framework for future research on Roman frontiers by presenting 21 theories about the function of Roman borders. 🧭 The 21 Theories of Roman Frontier Function Grouped thematically for clarity: 🛡️ Military & Strategic Defense against invasion Control of raiding Provision of warning of attack Provision of time to respond to attack Provision of a base for attack Provision of a base for expansion Provision of a base for reconquest 🚧 Control & Regulation Control of movement of people Control of movement of animals Control of movement of goods Control of customs and taxation Control of disease 🏛️ Administrative & Political Marking the edge of the empire Marking the edge of provincial jurisdiction Marking the edge of military command Marking the edge of legal authority 🧠 Psychological & Symbolic Demonstration of power Intimidation of neighbors Monumental display of imperial authority Symbol of Roman civilization vs. barbarism 🔄 Adaptive & Multifunctional Changing function over time and space 🧠 Summary of Breeze’s Argument with Theories Integrated Breeze argues that Roman frontiers were not monolithic in purpose. Instead, they served multiple overlapping functions, which varied by region, era, and political context. For example: Hadrian’s Wall may have initially served to control movement and mark imperial boundaries, but later evolved into a base for mobile operations and defense. Danubian frontiers emphasized strategic deployment and rapid response, while Dacia’s mountainous defenses used terrain to monitor and contain threats. Literary sources like Tacitus and Ammianus Marcellinus support theories of intimidation, control, and symbolic power, while inscriptions and archaeology demonstrate practical applications such as taxation and disease management. Breeze warns against reducing frontier studies to a single theory. Instead, he urges scholars to analyze these 21 functions using archaeological and textual evidence, emphasizing the diversity and adaptability of frontier systems. https://traj.openlibhums.org/article/id/3995/

Ancients, the Egyptians and Sumerians, for example, knew about the cyclic nature of weather, and they planned for it, the general rule was to store seven yr's worth of grain for the inevitable dry yrs. When a society is accustomed to a certain level of ag yield each year, it's population grows to match that food supply (it reaches its carrying capacity)...If that yield suddenly falls &/or it remains lower for an extended stretch, the population will fall to match the new carrying capacity.....That population collapse can get ugly. Remember the bjg, round Aztec calendar that predicted the End of the World in 2012?....There was a cartoon that pictured that calender sitting before the king on his throne and a guy with a hammer & chisel behind the stone saying "It only goes up to 2012 because I ran out of stone."

Hi all — I’ve recently launched a documentary series exploring how ancient Rome built its empire through propaganda, long before the age of social media. The first episode, Crafting Power, focuses on the reign of Augustus and the symbolic tools he used to shape public perception — from architecture and sculpture to ritual and myth. 🎥 Watch Episode 1: Crafting Power (How Roman Propaganda Built an Empire — Without Social Media) I’d love to hear your thoughts, especially on how these ancient strategies compare to modern political messaging. Also curious: what do you make of the Ara Pacis as a piece of public persuasion? Was it more ceremonial, or deeply strategic? If you enjoy Episode 1, you might also be interested in Episode 2, which explores how astrology was used to legitimize authority in Rome: 🔮 Watch Episode 2: SIgns of the TImes (How Roman Propaganda Built an Empire — Without Social Media — Episode 2) Episode 3 is coming next week and will dive into the role of spectacle and public performance in shaping Roman identity. Stay tuned! You can find them on my YouTube channel called Clashical History YouTube Channel Thanks for watching — and for keeping Roman history alive through such rich discussion.

Thank you for sharing your work. Very interesting. I think your work is fantastic, but it's even better when you avoid making references to the modern era. Let the listeners see the parallels themselves.

Pardon me if this Aeneas inscription decoder tool has already been posted, but: https://deepmind.google/discover/blog/aeneas-transforms-how-historians-connect-the-past/

We already had some posts about wigs in Ancient Rome (see below). Here’s a good article about the sophisticated Roman hairstyles. 💇‍♀️ Roman Hairstyles: Status, Satire, and Sculpture This article delves into the luxurious world of Roman women's hairstyles, especially during the Flavian dynasty (AD 69–96), when tall curls and intricate coiffures became symbols of high status. ✨ Highlights from the Article Satirical Sources: Poets like Martial and Juvenal mocked the absurdity and cruelty of Roman beauty standards. One epigram describes a woman beating her hairdresser over a misplaced curl. Fonseca Bust: A renowned sculpture from the Capitoline Museums (pictured above) depicts a woman with a dramatic “toupet” of curls, reflecting the actual fashion of the time. Imperial Influence: Empresses like Julia Flavia (pictured below) and Domitia Longina wore elaborate styles, possibly influenced by Emperor Domitian (reign AD 81-96), who wrote about hair care and wore wigs himself. Decline of the Marble Wig: During the 2nd century AD, hairstyles became simpler. Empress Plotina and Vibia Sabina (empress between AD 117-136 pictured below) preferred more modest looks, signaling a shift back to Augustan simplicity. Artistic Commentary: The changes in hairstyles mirror broader cultural changes. //antigonejournal.com/2025/07/roman-hairstyles/ Note: In the post below, hairdresser Janet Stephens argues that many of these elaborate hairstyles may have been natural hairstyles and not wigs.

3 men given up to 11 years in prison for 9 minute theft of biggest trove of Celtic gold found in the 20th century; coins apparently melted down, implicated in 20 other robberies: https://www.newsmax.com/world/globaltalk/germany-manching-museum-celtic-gold/2025/07/29/id/1220477/ P.S. I speculate this priceless destruction may be due to coins staying in little (12k pop) town where discovered instead of major city museum with world class security and ease of visiting like nearby Munich or even Stockholm coin museum which has elaborate setup to view all with magnifiers etc. Dislike this stay-local movement for world heritage items.

Yes, very interesting. Thanks so much for sharing.

A Roman gold miniature padlock was discovered by a metal detectorist who was scanning a field in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, in 2023. The lock, with a gold exterior and an iron core, measures just 1.2 cm by 1.1 cm. It is missing its key and most of its chain, but one line remains in place. The lock’s mechanics are made of iron. 🔐 Summary: Roman Miniature Gold Lock Found in Germany An archaeological discovery in Petershagen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, has revealed a 1.2 cm Roman miniature box lock made of gold and iron, dating to the 3rd or 4th century AD. Discovered by metal detectorist Constantin Fried in 2023, this lock is the northernmost and only miniature Roman box lock ever found in Europe. 🛠️ Craftsmanship & Mechanism: The lock casing consists of two cylindrical metal sheets with decorative perforations, sealed with caps and riveted. CT scans couldn’t penetrate the dense casing, so researchers used 3D neutron computed tomography to reveal the internal mechanism. The scans revealed a spring-loaded system comprising a bolt, guide rail, baseplate, pin, and a chain end link—confirming it was a fully functional lock, not just decorative. Damage inside suggests someone in antiquity tried to force it open or remove a blockage. 🧪 Reconstruction & Significance: A restorer created a working replica four times larger than the original, helping reconstruct the lock’s mechanism and chain. The find showcases the high level of craftsmanship in provincial Roman blacksmithing and offers clues about Roman influence and elite connections in Westphalia. It may have been used to secure a jewelry box or served as a luxury item, possibly brought back by a Roman veteran or elite traveler. https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/romans/1-600-year-old-roman-padlock-with-spring-mechanism-discovered-in-germany-and-its-tiny http://www.thehistoryblog.com/archives/72308

The British School in Rome youtube channel has long lecture videos that calculate challenging logistics of feeding these fires in Ostia and I guess Rome/Pompeii. In order to heat such volume of water it takes an exact huge amount of firewood carted in every night (deliveries forbidden by day). Only a few wider roads can support cart traffic and turn around requirements, and they therefore thunder by something like every 3 minutes IIRC. By dawn farmers come in and collect animal and human night soil which was highly prized and not flushed away. For Ostia they only included local deliveries, not the massive transhipments to Rome, so maybe even the above villa created such nocturnal traffic jams. Also they calculate the exact required human porters to support wine and olive oil consumption which I think also had to move at night. The wine amphorae were the perfect weight for humans of that era to carry without undue strain door to door, and such human dexterity simplified loading/unloading issues over pack animals or carts. Olive oil came in huge containers which were too big for single humans or pack animals; once you counterbalanced on both sides you can't get thru narrow streets. I think the oil (used around baths for scraper cleaning?) must have been suspended by a pole between 2 porters. The scholars calculate how many porters and animals pass thru each street per hour, and debate things like do cart ruts imply one way traffic patterns (probably not). While listening, youtube recommended a video advertising a British school in Rome for sale, so I won't look up exact legacy channel name. It now might be found under something like "Chairman Mao Memorial School in Rome" or "Comrade Trotsky Memorial School in Rome"?

After watching the virtual 3D tour of ancient Rome Guy posted, I watched this one on the baths. If this is how it looked, it must have been truly magnificent. Also, I was amazed that the narrative states the baths functioned for 300 years. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XQV8BJFAkrM