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They draw a false conclusion....The only thing they can correctly say is that they were infected with Plasmodium sp when they died. The fact that they found two or more sp points toward chronic &/or recurrent infections, very common in that region at that time. A fulminant course of malaria leading to rapid death within days of exposure is less common than a more indolent course resulting in anemia and eventual organ failure. (Cf- Quartan Fever) https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/hcp/clinical-features/index.html

This article was already highlighted in the UNRV newsletter. It reminded me about previous discussions (see post below). It is a good example of sensory archaeology, the branch of archaeology that studies how people in the past experienced the world through their senses (smell, sound, touch, taste, and sight) rather than focusing on objects, architecture, and objects. The article also shows how small residue samples can reveal global economic connections and domestic religious behavior. Pompeii Incense Study Researchers analyzed 2,000-year-old ash residues preserved inside two Roman incense burners from Pompeii and a nearby villa. Techniques like GC-MS and phytolith analysis allowed researchers to identify burned substances and confirm they were heated intentionally. What the ash contained was determined by advanced biomolecular and microscopic techniques: • Local plant materials (wood, grasses, possibly laurel or fruit trees) Exotic aromatic resins from the Burseraceae family-plants native to tropical Africa or Asia and related to frankincense/ elemi Chemical traces of grape products, likely wine, consistent with ritual libations Provides the first direct physical evidence of what Romans actually burned in household religious rituals. Confirms that imported incense was used not only by elites but in ordinary domestic shrines (lararia). Shows that ritual practice involved intentional heating/ burning, verified through biomolecular and microscopic analysis. Implications for global trade The presence of African/Asian resins in ordinary households shows: Pompeii was deeply connected to long-distance trade networks Imported luxury goods were accessible even to non-elite residents Trade routes likely linked India, Arabia, sub-Saharan Africa, Egypt, and Mediterranean ports before reaching Italy The study is a major contribution to sensory archaeology, reconstructing ancient smells, materials, and ritual experiences. https://arkeonews.net/sacred-smoke-and-global-trade-pompeiis-ash-reveals-a-2000-year-old-network/

I'd like to know how the identity of such busts are made and by whom?

This is a wonderful short video, but I have shared my opinions below: The Roman phrase “bread and circuses” (panem et circenses) comes from the satirist Juvenal, writing in the late 1st–early 2nd century AD. Interestingly, he didn’t say “grain (frumentum) and circuses.” Juvenal deliberately chose "panem" because he was mocking the Roman people’s desire for the finished, consumable product — literal bread in hand — rather than the raw grain they received as their dole. The phrase “bread and circuses” refers to the crowd’s desire for ready-made food and entertainment, not the harder work of grinding wheat at home. Some correction in terminology: The annona was broader than just the dole: it included provisioning the army, Rome’s markets, and even emergency famine relief. The annona was Rome's food-supply system, especially the state-managed import, storage, and distribution of grain. Think of it as the pipeline that kept the city fed, with fleets, warehouses (horrea), and administrators. The frumentatio was a subset of the annona, specifically the citizen entitlement. It was the grain dole — subsidized or free wheat given to eligible Roman citizens. This was the monthly ration, usually about five modii (roughly 35–40 pounds) of wheat per person. Bread distributions were an imperial innovation (notably under Aurelian in the 3rd century AD), reflecting both practical needs and political theater — emperors wanted to be seen as feeding the people directly. Before Augustus, grain supply management was more informal, handled loosely by magistrates and temporary officials. In the late 1st century BCE, Augustus took a major step by creating a permanent office, the praefectus annonae, to oversee the grain supply. This official was responsible for everything related to grain—its import, storage, and distribution to the people of Rome. They managed fleets from Egypt and North Africa, supervised storage warehouses (horrea), and made sure the monthly grain allotment (frumentatio) reached everyone. By ensuring the city was well fed, Augustus helped prevent riots and build a stronger connection with the people. He made the grain supply system a lasting part of the empire's structure by establishing a powerful office, and the person in charge of it became essential to imperial governance.

It can be quite a convenience to click "watch on youtube" then stop playback and click on "ask" for an AI summary. Then can pick a point to expand with an excerpt playback (altho I often forget I have to then un-stop by hitting play). Not so needed for this short video, but what a tool to preview those many videos stuck in your "watch later" playlist. Especially those slow to get to the point.

Magister Craft describes the different types of boats and ships used by the Romans. The merchant ships/cargo ships (navis mercatoria/oneraria) that moved goods around the Mare Nostrum were too large to navigate the Tiber River to get to Rome proper. They docked at Ostia and the cargo was transferred to barges capable of the journey up the river.

Here is an interesting article about DNA evidence from grape seeds recovered from wells at Cetamura del Chianti, the site of the famous “red” Chianti (pictured above). Archaeogenetic evidence from ancient Tuscany, however, shows that the dominant grape cultivated by the Etruscans and Romans in Chianti was a white grape variety. Since grape skin color is the key determinant of wine color, those vineyards would have yielded white wines. “Between 300 BCE and 300 CE, local residents dropped grape pips into deep wells, where oxygen-poor mud preserved them.” The article describes how archaeologists sequenced DNA from 2,000-year-old grape seeds found in wells at Cetamura del Chianti in Tuscany, providing the most detailed genetic look at ancient grapevines from a single site. They analyzed 80 seeds and found that most came from a single, identical variety that was grown continuously from the Etruscans to the Romans, showing a strong consistency in local grape growing. The genetic markers revealed that this main clone produced white grapes, which is surprising since Chianti is now famous for its red Sangiovese wines. After the Romans arrived, new grape varieties appeared, indicating that carefully chosen cultivated types were brought in from across the empire. Some seeds also showed signs of wild grapes. One of the most interesting findings is a lineage genetically close to a rare Hungarian grape and to the famous Maribor vine in Slovenia—the world's oldest living fruiting grapevine. This points to long‑distance connections in ancient viticulture and hints at the broader networks through which grape varieties moved across the Roman world. Cetamura’s grape seeds are important because they provide a rare and well-preserved glimpse into how viticulture developed in central Tuscany, spanning from the Etruscan period to Roman rule. The history of grape seeds found at Cetamura del Chianti is told through well-preserved layers in two ritual wells. These layers date back to the Etruscan period (3rd–2nd century BCE), then through the Roman Republican and Imperial times, and even into the Late Antique era (4th–6th centuries CE). It's interesting to note that the later Roman grapes weren’t examined because of the biological changes they underwent. This uninterrupted sequence shows that viticulture in the Chianti Hills was already established before Roman influence, intensified during Roman agricultural expansion with greater varietal diversity, and persisted even after the decline of Roman authority, making Cetamura one of the rare sites in Italy where the evolution of grape cultivation can be traced continuously for nearly a millennium. The DNA also shows no direct match with modern Sangiovese but does share alleles with Tuscan heritage varieties such as Colorino, Canaiolo Nero, and Malvasia The real surprise is the grapes' color: the dominant lineage carried alleles for white berries rather than red. In other words, the people living in the Chianti hills two thousand years ago were cultivating a white‑grape variety (and drank white wine), despite the region’s modern association with red Sangiovese wines. https://www.technologynetworks.com/applied-sciences/news/ancient-dna-from-tuscan-wells-reveal-origins-of-modern-wine-413573 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440326001354?via%3Dihub

Hope everyone, including Canadians, are coping with the air pollution from the fires. Pretty bad here the last couple of days - Northeast Ohio. Suppose to start dissipating before midnight tonight.

The Torlonia collection is on its final stop of North America in Montreal this month. The Torlonia collection contains 622 ancient marbles, assembled in the 19th century from aristocratic Roman families (Giustiniani, Albani, Cavaceppi) and Torlonia estate excavations. For decades it was inaccessible, making this tour a landmark event. The Torlonia sculptures now on exhibit form one of the most important Roman sculpture showings in decades: 57 masterpieces from the Torlonia Collection, touring North America for the first time and currently on view at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts (MMFA) until July 19, 2026. The exhibition is historically significant: the Torlonia Collection—long considered the greatest private collection of Roman sculpture—was inaccessible for most of the 20th century, stored away since WWII and known mainly through 19th‑century catalogues. Its recent restoration and release to the public is one of the major events in Roman art scholarship. Here is a good video review about the exhibit while previously in Fort Worth at the Kimbell Art Museum earlier this year: Here is a short video of the exhibit now in Montreal:

The article below about the reopening of the House of Carbonized Furniture at Herculaneum made me wonder: Why were wooden objects preserved at Herculaneum in AD 79 (and not at Pompeii)? Pictured above and below are some of the wooden objects preserved there. The wood did not burn because the pyroclastic surge that hit Herculaneum was not the same type that destroyed Pompeii. Instead of open-air ash fall, Herculaneum was engulfed by a 20‑meter‑deep mass of superheated pyroclastic mud. Temperatures reached ~400 °C, hot enough to carbonize wood but—critically—oxygen was almost completely absent. At Herculaneum, when the first pyroclastic surge struck the town, it produced carbonized wood. The surge raised temperatures to around 300–500 °C, but it contained almost no oxygen. In such conditions, wood doesn’t burn; instead, it undergoes a process called carbonization. This is a chemical change that drives off volatile compounds, leaving behind a stable, charcoal-like material. Because the surge quickly buried the buildings and sealed them beneath meters of hot material, beams, doors, furniture, shelving, and even architectural panels were remarkably preserved in their original shapes, only transformed into carbon. This process accounts for the incredible preservation of many wooden objects at the site. On the ancient shores of Herculaneum, a different preservation process took place (see the picture below). Waterlogged wood creates a very unique environment for preservation. In several parts of the site, especially where volcanic mudflows and wet deposits settled, timber was buried in saturated, oxygen-poor layers rather than being heated enough to turn into charcoal. When submerged in this special anaerobic environment, decay-causing organisms couldn't thrive, allowing the wood to stay chemically 'alive.' It kept its cellular structure, species features, and even tiny growth rings. That's why archaeologists can tell the difference between fir, cypress, and spruce at the site: the wood wasn’t burned or charred but preserved through long-term saturation. Above are a boat prow painted red and a vertical winch (used to pull boats ashore), both wonderfully preserved. Pompeii’s wood mostly burned or decayed over time, but Herculaneum’s unique circumstances—such as higher temperatures, deeper burial, and lack of oxygen—preserved the world’s largest collection of Roman wooden artifacts. You can find doors, beds, shelves, roof beams, furniture, and even carbonized scrolls there. https://www.ansa.it/english/news/2026/07/10/herculaneums-house-of-the-carbonized-furniture-reopens-after-30-years_26911e38-10bd-434f-8f29-da719b60a565.html https://the-past.com/feature/wooden-wonders-of-herculaneum/ Below is an interesting video from Darius Arya highlighting the wooden objects preserved at Herculaneum.

Gildas (AD 450 or 500-c570) is foundational for understanding the collapse of Roman Britain because he is the earliest surviving British voice describing the period after Rome withdrew. Every later medieval historian—Bede, Nennius, the Anglo‑Saxon Chronicle—depends on him. Without Gildas, our picture of 5th‑century Britain would be dramatically thinner. This article explains how medieval Britons remembered the fall of Roman Britain, focusing on the 6th‑century writer Gildas, whose account shaped all later narratives. It shows that medieval memory of Rome’s departure blended history, trauma, and legend, and that some of Gildas’s claims align with contemporary Roman sources. Gildas wrote De Excidio Britanniae (shown above) around AD 540, making him the first British author to describe the post‑Roman world from inside Britain rather than from Rome or Gaul. No earlier British chronicles survive from the period of AD 410–540. Gildas identifies the usurper Maximus (AD 383) as the figure who removed Britain’s troops, effectively beginning the end of Roman rule. He highlights the AD 410 message from Emperor Honorius telling Britons to defend themselves, marking the official end of Roman administration: Gildas writes that after repeated appeals for military help, “the Romans told them to look to their own defence, and no longer to expect help from them,” a line that marks the moment Britain was formally abandoned and forced to face Saxon pressure without imperial protection. Gildas describes the later Battle of Mount Badon (around AD 495 or 500) as a decisive victory in which the Britons defeated the Saxons, ending decades of warfare and ushering in a generation of peace. https://share.google/xievpPhoTFyOUWTmJ

True spy thriller in Naples: "How I caught an Illegal Russian Spy" only on youtube but with 6k comments urging Netflix to adopt it. Prize winning journalist tracks down honeytrap spy trolling Naples Nato base officials for blackmail potential due to illicit romance or finances. Found due to her fraudulent passport number being in sequence with known spy assassins and kidnappers. Her several fake identities tied together via ID chip in her cat. I always suspected one of the top U.S. youtube publisher of the ancient and modern around greater Naples of being a history teacher for K-12 schools of that Nato base. Sounded like such a nice gig, but now can see threats of sinister or sometimes buffoon operatives. P.S. not in the headlines for murder so much today because spys get the same reward for dead or alive (kidnapped into Russia):

Archaeologists digging near Binyamina in Israel uncovered two remarkably well-preserved Roman marble statues dating to roughly 1,700 years ago. They were found in a collection pit used for a Roman–Byzantine winepress. Rather than being displayed as originally intended, they had been carefully laid face-down in the pit, suggesting they were intentionally buried after the winepress ceased operation. The sculptures are marble protomes—heads and upper torsos—depicting figures from the Greco-Roman era. One statue bears a Greek inscription with the name “Lycurgus,” and researchers are trying to determine whether it represents Lycurgus of Sparta or Lycurgus of Athens, both well-known historical figures. The statues were first noticed when an unusual object emerged from the soil; further digging revealed marble instead of the usual pottery fragments found at such sites. Their quality suggests a considerable investment in imported art, likely originally displayed in a public building or an elite household in Caesarea, where similar portrait sculptures have been discovered — although such finds are rare, with the last comparable discovery dating back to the 1990s. The statues are now undergoing cleaning, conservation, and detailed study, including efforts to determine their original placement and the reason they were deliberately hidden for nearly seventeen centuries. 1,700-year-old Roman marble statues found buried in ancient winepress near Caesarea | Archaeology News Online Magazine

A marble bust of the Roman goddess Venus was discovered during beach restoration work on the Spanish beach of La Almadraba in Alicante. The bust dates from the 1st-2nd century AD. https://www.jpost.com/archaeology/article-899027

Did Roman legionaries use spiderwebs to speed wound healing? Possibly, but not for the reasons suggested in the video below. The video suggests that the vitamin K in spiderwebs would have stopped bleeding. Although vitamin K is essential for making clotting factors (and stopping bleeding), there is no evidence that spiderwebs contain any meaningful amounts of vitamin K, and any tiny amounts of topical vitamin K on spiderwebs would not be useful for controlling bleeding anyway. Were spiderwebs used for wound care? Pliny the Elder mentions the use of spiderwebs in Naturalis Historia (Chapter 36): https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D29%3Achapter%3D36&utm_source=chatgpt.com So, how could spiderwebs potentially assist in wound care? Spider silk could form an extremely fine mesh. When pressed onto a wound, it acts like primitive gauze: The mechanical lattice effect works because spider silk forms a dense, flexible mesh that lightly adheres to the skin and immediately traps blood at the wound surface, giving platelets a stable scaffold to cling to while the body initiates clot formation. In practice, this makes the web function like an early form of gauze, slowing blood flow long enough for a natural clot to form. Also, some webs might have harbored mold or dust with antibiotic properties, and spider silk proteins themselves have rudimentary antimicrobial effects. This might have reduced infection, making the treatment appear more effective overall. Contrary to the video, spiderwebs would not have stopped bleeding like an ancient styptic. But spiderwebs would, at least, be better than a dirty rag and probably wouldn’t adhere to a wound.

How does this stuff get published? They analyzed data from 258 individuals who lived over a span of 250+ years and expect us to believe those detailed demographic characterizations. ???? The only thing they should credibly conclude is that people in the small sample buried there tended to be older if they lived after 476 AD.....and we don't know anything about those who didn't wind up in these graveyards (which was probably the majority of the population).

A pre-Columbian Bolivian mummy was found to contain Streptococcus pyogenes, the bacteria that cause strep throat. It proves that the infection was already present in the Americas before European contact. Interestingly, 4000-year-old European samples have also shown the infection. Although never found in Roman DNA, Galen, Celsus, and other Roman physicians describe an erysipelas-like infection, usually caused by Streptococcus. The sharply demarcated redness and rapidly spreading swelling associated with fever that characterized erysipelas is described by Galen and other ancient physicians (pictured below): Streptococcus was one of the known infections to impact both the Romans and the Americas. Many virulent infections are thought to be confined to Europe rather than the pre-Columbian Americas: smallpox, measles, influenza, typhus, etc. The standard epidemiological narrative holds that the New World lacked epidemic-scale pathogens because it lacked the population density and animal domestication that drove the evolution of Old World diseases. But the Eurac study shows S. pyogenes, a globally distributed, human-to-human pathogen capable of causing scarlet fever, toxic shock, and invasive infections, was already circulating in Indigenous South American populations between AD 1283-1383. This means at least one “Old World‑type” pathogen did not arrive with Europeans. The article shows that the Old World–New World disease divide was real but not absolute. At least one major pathogen long assumed to be European was already present in the Americas centuries before contact, revealing a more entangled and ancient global disease history than previously believed. https://www.eurac.edu/en/press/the-bacterium-responsible-for-scarlet-fever-was-not-introduced-to-the-americas-by https://archaeology.org/news/2026/04/21/scarlet-fever-bacterium-detected-in-700-year-old-tooth/

April 21-- the traditional birthday of Rome. Originally a community of shepherds, the day corresponds to the traditional holiday celebrating the god of shepherds, Pales, hence, the celebration was called the Parilia. https://youtu.be/rSxGLtN1ClE?si=oalm_kqCS1L2ZJhf (click the cc for English subtitles)

There are many videos on finds from recent Rome Metro station excavations and how they will be showcased, but this one takes a broad picture over the long term. While the train tunnels dive below archeological layers, the stations with associated shafts to surface have bumped into sprawling features whose preservation in place will rival the largest underground museum space in the world except the Louvre. It isn't a Metro project with a spinoff of archeology, but Europe's largest archeo digs with a spinoff of (delayed) metro project:

A couple points-- The various grains are all pretty close to each other in content of amino acids & carb calories per unit weight, so there is no nutritional magic in preferring one over another. ....Growing barley was a little more productive than growing wheat in the Mediterranean climate, but wheat gave a more delicate, palatable bread than berley. https://everything.explained.today/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome/#Ref-5 After burning off the C, H, O & N in biomass as co2, h2o & NOx to the atmosphere, what's left (ash) is mostly the inorganic minerals-- high in K, Ca, & Mg....Dissolve it in water, and it makes a great fertilizer for your veggie garden or primitive Gatorade for your gladiator--- but be careful to dilute it well because that's also the recipe for making lye. ..but those gladiators were tough. I wonder if they chewed nails for their Iron?

Gaius Appuleius Diocles (AD 104 till at least 146) may have been Ancient Rome’s most successful (and wealthiest) sports figure. A monument made in his honor at his retirement states: ‘Gaius Appuleius Diocles, charioteer of the Red stable, a Lusitania Spaniard by birth, age 42 years, 7 months, 23 days.’ ‘He raced four horse chariots [similar to the scene above from “Ben-Hur”] for 24 years.’ His earnings are recorded to have been 35,863,120 sesterces. This is equivalent to hundreds of millions of dollars today. Achievements (Unmatched in Antiquity) • Total Races & Wins Number Total races started 4,257 Total victories 1,462-1,463 Second-place finishes 1,438 Wins in single-entry races 1,064 Wins in the most prestigious opening race 110 Chariot racing was the single most popular sport in Ancient Rome, surpassing even gladiatorial combat in scale, frequency, and cultural impact. The Circus Maximus drew crowds in the hundreds of thousands, and Romans devoted far more festival days to racing than to any other form of entertainment. The Circus Maximus could hold 150,000-250,000 spectators, making it the largest sports venue in the ancient world. Some estimates suggest 200,000+ people attended major race days More Race Days Than Any Other Sport Rome scheduled around 60 days per year for chariot racing. Gladiatorial games, by contrast, had about 10 days annually. Below is a short video describing this incredible athlete: https://earlychurchhistory.org/entertainment/diocles-the-most-successful-charioteer/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Appuleius_Diocles

A Roman cargo ship, dating from AD 20 to 50, has been found in the Swiss lake of Neuchâtel. A Roman shipwreck discovered in Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland, has yielded hundreds of exceptionally preserved artifacts-including ceramics, amphorae, chariot parts, and weapons-offering a rare, intact snapshot of early Roman trade and transport between AD 20-50. The cargo's condition is so extraordinary that it is considered one of Switzerland's most significant inland-water Roman finds to date. Identified via aerial photography in November 2024, followed by dives and excavation in 2025. Represents the remains of a Roman merchant vessel operating in a freshwater transport network. The finds so far include Several hundred ceramic vessels: dishes, plates, cups, bowls-mostly regional Swiss Plateau products. Amphorae from Spain: evidence of long-distance olive oil trade. Tools and utensils: insights into daily life and shipboard activity. Chariot and harness components, including remarkably preserved wheels— the only Roman examples ever found in Switzerland. Weapons (including swords): suggesting the merchant ship traveled under military escort. The presence of: Two gladii A military pickaxe (dolabra) A belt buckle A fibula used to fasten a soldier's cloak ...suggests the cargo was either: Escorted by Roman soldiers, or Intended for a Roman legion operating along the Rhine frontier. This aligns with the early-1st-century dating (Tiberius era). Details about the swords discovered: Sword 1 (the sheathed gladius) Still inside its wood-and-metal scabbard Scabbard construction suggests: Wooden core Metal fittings (likely tinned or bronze alloy) Typical of early-1st-century legionary equipment Sword 2 Described simply as a complete gladius No scabbard mentioned Why the swords survived so well: Lake Neuchâtel's chalk-rich, low-oxygen freshwater environment is known to preserve organics unusually well. This explains: Survival of the scabbard, Preservation of wooden chariot wheels and Intact wicker basket found with other cargo https://www.heritagedaily.com/2026/03/rare-roman-treasures-found-on-shipwreck-in-swiss-lake/157564

...or maybe the guy was just a big fan....It's not unusual today for a fanatic to get buried in the jersey of his favorite team.

This is an interesting article about the fascinating frescoes at the Pompeian property of the House of the Thiasus, named after the term for a Dionysian procession. The article describes the discovery, excavation, and interpretation of a spectacularly decorated Dionysian dining hall in a massive Pompeian residence now called the House of the Thiasus. Its vivid frescoes-painted between 40-30 B.C.-depict ecstatic followers of Dionysus, violent maenads, and lavish food imagery, offering new insight into Pompeii's deep, centuries-long engagement with the mystery cult of Dionysus. One of the article's most important contributions is showing that Pompeii's relationship with Dionysus was: Older than previously thought More pervasive across social classes More deeply tied to household religion than to public cult This article contrasts the findings of the House of the Thiasus (located in Pompeii) and the Villa of the Mysteries (located outside the city walls) House of the Thiasus Located inside Pompeii, embedded in an elite urban neighborhood. Part of a massive townhouse complex, renovated repeatedly to project status. The Dionysian room is one chamber within a multifunctional domestic environment. Villa of the Mysteries A suburban villa outside the city walls. A self-contained estate with agricultural, residential, and ritual spaces. The famous fresco room is part of a villa designed for retreat, leisure, and elite display. Implication: The House of the Thiasus shows Dionysian ritual inside the everyday fabric of city life, not just in secluded villas. The Villa of the Mysteries is a Dionysian initiation environment— a place where individuals underwent symbolic transformation through a structured ritual narrative. Both are Dionysian, but they represent two different faces of the god: Dionysus the bringer of ecstasy and abundance (House of the Thiasus) Dionysus the initiator into mystery and rebirth (Villa of the Mysteries) https://archaeology.org/issues/march-april-2026/features/pompeiis-house-of-dionysian-delights/ Here is a previous thread on the find from early information:

Lost Treasures of Rome documentary series is at this moment playing nonstop season 2 on Nat Geo TV, and above is season 1. I guess a couple more seasons exist, but I somehow channel surfed past them due to the low-key approach. It can be a refreshing change from the usual sensational themes, especially when they take on lesser known (and advertiser unappealing) stories of Rome.

The pathway from the Imperial Palace to the imperial box at the Colosseum will now be accessible to the public. This hidden emperors’ route is known as the “Commodus Passage.” The Commodus Passage—a long-hidden imperial corridor beneath the Colosseum—is scheduled to open to the public for the first time on October 27, 2025, marking a major milestone in Roman archaeology and conservation. 🏛️ Historical Significance Named after Emperor Commodus (161–192 AD). The passage linked the imperial box inside the Colosseum directly to the outside world, enabling emperors and elite dignitaries to enter unseen by the public. It was not part of the original Flavian construction (72–80 AD), but was added later by excavating underneath the amphitheatre’s foundations. 🧱 Restoration and Features Rediscovered and excavated in the 19th century, but remained closed to the public until now. Restoration completed in September 2025, funded by the Colosseum Archaeological Park and Italy’s National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP). Visitors will see: Marble-clad walls with traces of ancient metal clamps. Stucco vaults depicting mythological scenes (e.g., Dionysus and Ariadne). Painted plaster showing arena spectacles. A tactile map and video reconstructions to aid accessibility. 🚶 Public Access and Experience Entry will be limited to small groups of eight, similar to the panoramic elevator system. About 30 meters of the passage are currently open, with plans to extend access further in 2026. Visitors can observe live restoration work through a glass door at the end of the tour, combining public engagement with conservation efforts. https://www.ansa.it/english/news/2025/10/07/commodus-passage-opens-to-public-for-first-time_015e0962-c0cf-4dbe-9a1c-02bc9f253aff.html Below is an excellent video by Ryan Garrett about this tunnel and he examines other possible roles of this tunnel.

It’s been a while since there has been a post about Hannibal’s elephants, which he brought over the Alps to terrorize Roman troops in 218 BCE. (See post below) Researchers have found ancient bones in Córdoba, Spain, that belonged to an African elephant, the type of elephant used by Hannibal and the Carthaginians (pictured below). The African elephant was not native to Spain. Hannibal used African elephants, in contrast to the larger Asian elephant used by Pyrrhus and later by the Seleucids, against Rome. These findings suggest that the elephant may have been: A Carthaginian war elephant stationed in Iberia before Hannibal’s march. A gift or trade animal from North Africa. A local elephant (unlikely, since native elephants were extinct by then). A symbolic or ritual animal used in elite ceremonies. The researchers also found spherical stones thought to be used for Carthaginian catapults (picture below) https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/romans/landmark-elephant-bone-finding-in-spain-may-be-from-time-of-hannibals-war-against-rome https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352409X2600012X?via%3Dihub A good video about Hannibal’s drunk elephants:

Here is a map of Hannibal's route thru Spain although it probably is speculation, biased by a presumption that coastal lowlands aren't as rugged as they are. Then a topographic map showing inland Cordoba is indeed on a river valley coming close in the east to another river snaking east thru mountains. But again those valleys may be really rugged. So IMHO even if 100 elephants were led thru and occasionally died in Spain it seems unlikely to find any ancient death site vs souvenir pieces spread far and wide.

It's unclear how many elephants Hannibal started out with- 37 is a commonly quoted number- and even less clear how many survived the crossing of the Alps. Some sources say only one-- but Livy uses the plural "elephantes" when talking about subsequent battles....and he clearly states that it was the Roman cavalry horses that panicked "not only at the sight but at the unaccustomed smell of the elephants." He says that the Roman soldiers stood up well to them and quickly learned to "shoot darts at the animals' sides and stab them under the tails where the flesh is soft." (Livy Ab Urbe Condita https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0144%3Abook%3D21%3Achapter%3D55 ) Livy also says that his sources give conflicting numbers about the size of the Punic army and number of animals involved.

The short video above suggests that the peak of Ancient Rome’s urban architecture was around AD 320, a time when its design and structure were at their best. (Interestingly, the most innovative phase was actually in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.) I wondered why AD 320 is seen as the height of Rome’s structural achievement. Historians and archaeologists often point to this period because: Nearly every major imperial-era monument still stood and was maintained. The Colosseum, Pantheon, imperial fora, baths, temples, basilicas, and aqueducts — all intact. Constantine’s building boom added new monumental structures rather than replacing the old ones. His basilicas and triumphal arches were layered over an already dense architectural landscape. Urban infrastructure like aqueducts, sewers, roads, and public spaces remained operational and maintained. No major sack or catastrophic depopulation had yet occurred. The Visigothic sack of 410 (only 90 years after this peak) and subsequent declines were still ahead. Note: In AD 320, Pagan temples remained officially open, and Christianization had not yet resulted in their closure. Rome’s architectural landscape in AD 320 includes the Colosseum, Pantheon, Roman Forum and Imperial Fora, Circus Maximus, major temples, prominent baths such as Caracalla and Diocletian, aqueducts, roads, bridges, and early Christian basilicas such as Lateran and St. Peter’s. In AD 320 Constantine was co-emperor along with Licinius. (Licinius governed the Balkans and Eastern provinces, while Constantine ruled the West.) At that time, Christianity was tolerated but not yet the official state religion. Paganism still dominated state ceremonies, priesthoods, festivals and public identity in AD 320. Christianity was growing rapidly (especially in the West) but had no exclusive status. (The Empire would not adopt Christianity as its official religion until AD 380 under Theodosius I. Following AD 320, Constantinople rapidly emerged as the actual hub of the empire's power, wealth, and growth, whereas Rome transformed into a symbolic, historic, and religious capital rather than a political center.

(Scene of Brutus feasting with Cato and Pompey while besieging Caesar from the HBO series “Rome.”) The above video made me wonder: How did Romans preserve food for storage and long journeys? Here are a few ways: 🏺 Core Preservation Methods Salting: One of the most widespread preservation methods, salting drew moisture from meat and fish, slowing bacterial growth. Romans relied heavily on this technique for pork, fish, and even certain vegetables. Smoking: Meat and fish were suspended over low, smoldering fires. The smoke dehydrated the food while infusing it with antimicrobial compounds and distinctive flavors. Pickling: Many foods were preserved by submerging them in brine, vinegar, or a combination of both. This method worked especially well for vegetables, fruits, and some meats. Drying: Fruits, meats, and grains were commonly dried in the sun or wind. The warm, dry Mediterranean climate made dehydration a particularly effective and accessible technique. Storing in oil or honey: Items such as fruits, cheeses, and even prepared dishes could be submerged in olive oil or honey to limit air exposure and slow spoilage. Fermentation: Certain foods, most famously garum (a fermented fish sauce), were preserved through controlled decomposition aided by salt. This process created long-lasting, nutrient-rich condiments. Cool storage: Wealthier Romans sometimes used deep cellars, snow pits, or imported ice to keep food cool. While effective, this method was limited to those with the resources to maintain such facilities. 🍇 Why These Methods Worked Roman preservation techniques focused on controlling moisture, acidity, salt concentration, and exposure to air—the same scientific principles that underpin modern food preservation. These methods were essential for sustaining large urban populations and provisioning armies, enabling food to travel long distances and remain edible across changing seasons. A previous post on Roman cool storage: Here is a longer video on Roman food preservation:

The Basilica of Vitruvius has been discovered in Fano, Italy. Vitruvius was the great Roman architect of the first century BCE. The basis for the claim is Vitruvius himself, who described this specific building in De Architectura, the only structure he attributes to himself. https://arkeonews.net/archaeologists-confirm-fano-discovery-as-vitruvius-legendary-basilica-a-turning-point-for-classical-architecture/ Archaeologists state that the uncovered ruins correspond to the proportions, layout, and architectural features Vitruvius described for the basilica. These features include a rectangular public building, along with consistent dimensions and structural elements. Here is Vitruvius’ description of the structure: https://share.google/JZKoQhGBTuwm3QfVw

Everything reminds me of something else. The little body parts are no doubt from votives. We moderns continue the practice with little statues of the saints, for instance. Motorists often keep a small but stately St. Christopher on the dashboard of their cars....I thought bad drivers should have one where he's cringing and holding his hands & arms up to protect his face contorted in an expression of terror. The Tiberina island that sits in the river in Rome between the Forum Boarium and Trastevere district is actually man made. It formed when silt built up after the king Tarquinius Superbus was deposed in 509BC. His wheat fields just across the river were devastated by the angry Romans and thrown into the river there. With low water levels, they collected silt over time....200 years later, with a plague threatening Rome, the Senate sent a delagation to Greece to get some medical advice. They brought back a snake thought to be the god Asclepius. The snake jumped ship in the river and settled itself on the Tiberina, thereafter a refuge for snakes and the sick....and it of course is a great place for quarantine separated from the general traffic of the city.

I like this video history of why some gladiator types were phased out and in:

https://ancientromelive.org/about/ is fundraising for it's educational activities, and has set up a tax deductible way for Americans to do this thru nonprofit https://ancientromelive.org/support/. But they don't mention an especially painless way to do this which is a Transfer-On-Death provision to financial accounts such as retirement or bank. I have done this easily online, allocating various percentages to people and non-profits, with backups in case some recipients expire. As I understand this is put into action with death certificate long before probate and wills, and can be updated without witnesses (but confirm all independently) To set up you will need the EIN number, and the exact name of American Institute...

Seven skeletons have been discovered in a well in Osijek, Croatia (near ancient Mursa), and are believed to be Roman soldiers from the last half of the third century AD. The date was confirmed by carbon dating and a coin minted in AD 251 of Decius' son Hostilian. The deaths may have resulted from a battle in Mursa (AD 260), fought between Gallienus and the usurper Ingenuus. During that battle, Ingenuus was defeated by Gallienus’s cavalry, commanded by Aureolus. (Below is a link to that forgotten battle) A closer look at this discovery may reveal fascinating insights into legionary life. The seven skeletons were all adult males: four young adults and three middle-aged. They were first discovered in 2011, and the results of their analysis were released in the fall of 2025. The skeletons showed bone stress markers typical of trained soldiers. The average height was 172.5 cm (five feet, 8 inches). The lack of armor or other personal items suggests that these bodies were members of the losing Ingenuus’ forces. The lack of memorial stones or other markers supports the belief. Evidence of puncture wounds was found on the skeletons (shown below: sounds on the upper sternum and posterior side of the right hip): https://archaeologymag.com/2025/10/skeleton-filled-well-in-croatia-reveals-roman-soldiers/ https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/seven-skeletons-found-in-a-croatian-well-were-likely-ancient-roman-soldiers-who-died-during-a-troubled-time-for-the-empire-180987566/ Remains of Seven Roman Soldiers Fallen in the Battle of Mursa in 260 CE Found in a Well in Croatia The scientific article on the find: 🧾 Key Findings Archaeological context: Excavated in 2011 at Mursa, a Roman colony in Pannonia. The grave held seven fully articulated skeletons deposited at the same time. Radiocarbon dating indicates the burial occurred between 240–340 CE, aligning with mid-3rd century events. A coin minted under Emperor Hostilian (251 CE) was found in the fill, supporting the dating. Demography & health: All individuals were adult males, aged 18 to 50, with an average height of approximately 172.5 cm. Pathologies included vertebral changes, dental disease, and stress markers such as cribra orbitalia and enamel hypoplasia. Evidence of healed injuries indicated previous combat exposure. Two skeletons exhibited perimortem trauma from sharp weapons (puncture wounds in the manubrium and ilium, as well as cuts on the ribs and humerus). Dietary evidence (stable isotopes): The diet mainly consisted of C3 plants (possibly wheat and barley, the main components of Roman military rations) and C4 plants (possibly millet, widely grown in Central/Eastern Europe and used in Roman diets), with limited terrestrial animal protein. Very low marine protein consumption, aligning with the inland Roman military diet. Genetic analysis (aDNA): Four individuals yielded usable genome-wide data. Results showed heterogeneous ancestry, including Northern/Central European, Eastern European (Pontic-Caspian), and Eastern Mediterranean genetic components. No continuity with the local Early Iron Age population, suggesting they were non-local recruits. Distinct paternal haplogroups (N1a1, R1b1, I2a1b, I1a3a1) confirmed diversity. ⚖️ Interpretation The combination of male-only burial, combat injuries, strong physiques, and diverse backgrounds clearly indicates these were Roman soldiers. The burial probably indicates casualties from a major military event, most likely the Battle of Mursa in 260 CE, when Emperor Gallienus defeated the usurper Ingenuus. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0333440 The Battle of Mursa 260 AD - Free Source Library

In reading The Aeneid again recently, in particular the end of Book IV where Dido kills herself with Aeneas' sword. Vergil doesn't use the word "gladius."...and as I thought about it, it was apparent he rarely uses the word gladius in the whole work..... The Perseus site has a tool showing word frequencies among the common Latin works of lit.... https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/wordfreq?lookup=Ensis&lang=la Vergil usually uses words like "ensis," "ferrum" (cf- our "steel") or "arms" (arms). More rare words like pugio (dagger), sica (knife as a murder weapon) or culter (cutting edge, as in our cultivate) occur only once or twice in every 10-20,000 words. According to the Perseus tool, Vergil uses gladius only 9 times in the whole Aeneid. Livy uses it 96x in Ab Urbe Condita (Books 1-10) while Caesar uses it 24x in his Gallic Wars, a shorter work. For the word ferrum-- Livy 169x....Vergil 174x....Caesar 43x Arma-- Livy 750x ...Livy 554....Caesar 182 and Ensis-- Livy only once...Caesar not at all....and Vergil 63 times....so I guess we're justified in calling "ensis" a poetic word for sword.

On November 8, 2025, two individuals entered the Roman Museum in Lausanne, Switzerland, and stole dozens of gold coins after overpowering a security guard. The suspects had purchased tickets earlier that day and waited until the museum was empty of other visitors. They then assaulted and restrained the 64‑year‑old guard before smashing a display case and taking the coins. The perpetrators are still at large. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/gold-coins-stolen-roman-museum-switzerland-police/ https://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/3333757/swiss-police-hunt-2-men-after-gold-heist-museum-echoes-louvre-robbery

Certainly an impressive curriculum vitae.....but we could turn this into a discussion like the classic one in American baseball history-- who was the best center fielder, Mickey, Willy or The Duke? If you were chosing up sides for a stick ball game in the street, you couldn't go wrong no matter who you chose. Other Roman soldiers of notable bravery mentioned by Livy-- Horatio Cocles, Gaius Mucous Scaevola, Marcus Furious Camillus, and even a woman, Cloelia, who bravely led other women & children hostages to freedom back across the Tiber. Eg- https://pjmedia.com/spencer-klavan/2014/08/11/the-10-most-badass-roman-war-heroes-n154853#google_vignette In the account given by Guy above, Livy at least has the honesty to state that the speech is reproduced "as handed down to us" (a more direct translation from the Latin "fertur" in the original)....Livy says in his introductory remarks to Ab Urbe... that perhaps we should regard the stories coming from ancient authors as works of poetry rather than factual documents. Pretty smart cookie. Dionysius of Halicanarssus, OTOH, reproduces speeches on a regular basis that are pages long as if a stenographer were always present to record things in a Congressional Record. His work reads more like an historical novel than a credible history.

4 years into restoration of medieval tower, it partially collapsed. When rescue workers gesture they have found a survivor, the cheers of crowd appear to trigger further collapse which results in death of worker. Italian news site full of finger pointing that may take a while to sort out. I can't embed dramatic video due to busy factor, so click on https://youtu.be/VuolVj6K0Yk?si=RhGm7pXfvDvmQ83W or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IsYSCGaWWbA

Impressive, but then I'm from Chicago where the oldest building is that grotesque Water Tower, only about 150 years old. I wonder if they'll try to restore it/save it? ...Actually, most of the ruins we see in and about the forum are the remains of late Empire restorations, not the originals of the early Empire. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7560/760783 ....kinda reminds me of seeing George Washington's original hatchet with which he chopped down the cherry tree. Of course, after 300 years, the head had been replaced twice and the handle three times. Thanks for posting.

A Roman gravestone, removed from Italy during WWII and relocated to a backyard in New Orleans, Louisiana, will be returned to Italy (see video below). Here is a translation and explanation of the inscription: 🪦 Latin Inscription: D(is) M(anibus) / S(e)x(to) Congenio Vero / mi(liti) cl(assis) p(raetoriae) Mi(senensis) natio(ne) Bes(sso) / vixit an(nis) XLII mi(litavit) an(nis) XXII / Tutela (triere) Asc(l)epio / fece(runt) Atilius Carus / et Vettius Longi/nus heredes / b(ene) m(erenti) 📜 Translation: "To the spirits of the dead. For Sextus Congenius Verus, soldier of the praetorian fleet Misenensis, from the tribe of the Bessi [i.e., a Thracian]. He lived 42 years, served 22 in the military, on the trireme Asclepius. Atilius Carus and Vettius Longinus, his heirs, made this for him, well deserving." 🧭 Contextual Notes: · D.M. (Dis Manibus): A standard Roman funerary dedication meaning “To the spirits of the dead.” · Sextus Congenius Verus: The deceased, a Roman sailor. · Classis Praetoria Misenensis: The elite imperial fleet stationed at Misenum, near Naples. · Natio Besso: Indicates he was ethnically Bessian — a Thracian tribe from the Balkans. · Trireme Asclepius: Named after the Greco-Roman god of medicine, suggesting the ship may have had ceremonial or medical significance. · Atilius Carus and Vettius Longinus: His heirs, likely fellow sailors, as Roman soldiers were not legally permitted to marry until later imperial reforms. · Bene merenti: “Well deserving” — a common epitaph honoring the deceased’s service and character. This stele is a rare and poignant example of Roman naval funerary practice. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/a-married-couple-in-new-orleans-found-a-stone-in-their-backyard-it-turned-out-to-be-an-ancient-roman-soldiers-gravestone-180987485/ https://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/ap/article-15182737/A-long-lost-ancient-Roman-artifact-reappears-New-Orleans-backyard.html

http://www.circusmaximus.us/varianus.html If we assume the width of the modern streets, from building to building, is 10m, then it looks like the length of the superimposed circus varianus in the aerial photo paces out to be ~ 600m...just about the length of the C Max. ...judging by the size of the cars in the photo, that's probably a good estimate. For comparison, the Stadium Domitianum (now Piazza Navona) was https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadium_of_Domitian 275m x 105m, and the Circus Flaminius (3rd cent BC) was 300m. https://books.google.com/books?id=couetXBQO9AC&pg=PA543#v=onepage&q&f=false Another comparison for perspective-- the Piazza Del Popolo, sight of Sienna's famous biennial horse race is about 150m x 250m.

Writing "Ab Urbis Condita" in the 1st century BC, Livy says "the Circus, now called Maximus...." and goes on to describe seating platforms 12 ft high. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0151%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D35

A Roman helmet was discovered at the site of the Battle of Aegates off the western coast of Sicily. The battle, in March 241 BCE, was the final and deciding Roman victory of the 23-year-long First Punic War against the Carthaginians (see previous post below). Archaeologists have uncovered a remarkably well-preserved Roman Montefortino helmet off the western coast of Sicily, near the Aegadian Islands, dating back to the First Punic War (264–241 BC). This conflict marked the beginning of Rome’s long struggle with Carthage for control of the western Mediterranean. Key Highlights: Helmet Type: Montefortino, known for its conical bronze form, mushroom-shaped knob, flared rim, and neck guard. It was standard Roman military gear from approximately 300 BC to the 1st century AD. Condition: Intact, with both cheekpieces preserved—a rare find for underwater artifacts. Battle Context: Likely from the Battle of the Aegates (241 BC), the decisive naval engagement that ended the First Punic War and gave Rome control of Sicily. Ongoing Survey: Sicily’s Superintendency of the Sea has been conducting underwater studies for over 15 years, uncovering a treasure trove of artifacts, including bronze rams (rostra), weapons, and other helmets. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2025/09/intact-roman-helmet-from-first-punic-war-discovered/155936 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates

A pryroclastc flow is a high velocity thrust of hot, noxious gases (up to 1000⁰C). Citizens of Herc didn't have time to escape once the flow approached. It killed them on the spot by frying their lungs. They weren't buried immediately, hence had time to decompose slowly,thus leaving behind skeletons....BUT..the flash point of wood is in the 250-400⁰C range, so it must have been a so-called "cold pryroclastc flow" (gas temp "only" 250⁰C). As we've discussed here before, most Pompeians had some warning and were able to escape. Those that stayed were eventually inundated by the heavy rain of volcanic dust, probably suffocating as they were buried alive. Those bodies decayed more slowly and left hollows in the ash probably harded by eventual rainfall. The chart in Guy's first post is a little misleading. It implies there were no skeletons at Pompeii. There were, but they're inside the hollows/casts.

While most of us who've ever had 2 of 3 y/o kids to care for know the strong temptation to rub out the over-active, little nuisances, most us resist the urge. Apparently neither the Mayans nor the Cartiginians had such good self control. Long thought to be anti-Carthage propaganda, Roman and Greek reports of child sacrifice there now have been confirmed by archeological evidence. https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2014-01-23-ancient-carthaginians-really-did-sacrifice-their-children

After watching the virtual 3D tour of ancient Rome Guy posted, I watched this one on the baths. If this is how it looked, it must have been truly magnificent. Also, I was amazed that the narrative states the baths functioned for 300 years. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XQV8BJFAkrM