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There have been numerous posts before discussing the possible cause of the Justinian Plague that devastated the Byzantine Empire (AD 541-760). By using targeted DNA analysis of eight human teeth excavated from burial chambers beneath a former Roman hippodrome in Jerash, Egypt, researchers have successfully sequenced the genetic material matching Yersinia pestis, the cause of the later famous “Bubonic Plague” that ravaged Europe several centuries later. 🦠 Rewriting the Origins of the First Pandemic: The Plague of Justinian Two landmark studies—one published in Genes and another by USF Health—have finally provided direct genomic evidence of Yersinia pestis, the bacterium behind the Plague of Justinian (541–750 CE), in the Eastern Mediterranean, near the pandemic’s historical epicenter. 🔍 Key Discoveries: Site of Discovery: A mass grave beneath the Roman hippodrome in Jerash, Jordan (ancient Gerasa), just 330 km from Pelusium, where the plague was first recorded. Genetic Confirmation: DNA from eight teeth showed nearly identical Y. pestis strains across five individuals, indicating a swift, localized outbreak. Historical Significance: This represents the first genomic evidence of plague within the Byzantine Empire, filling a significant gap between historical records and biological confirmation. Virulence Factors: The Jerash strain possesses key genes (Ymt, Pla, F1 capsule) related to flea transmission and epidemic potential, linking it to other First Pandemic strains. Evolutionary Context: The pathogen did not originate from a single ancestral strain but repeatedly emerged from zoonotic reservoirs—unlike viruses such as SARS-CoV-2. https://www.usf.edu/health/news/2025/usf-research-rewrites-origins-of-first-pandemic.aspx https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4425/16/8/926

A Roman helmet was discovered at the site of the Battle of Aegates off the western coast of Sicily. The battle, in March 241 BCE, was the final and deciding Roman victory of the 23-year-long First Punic War against the Carthaginians (see previous post below). Archaeologists have uncovered a remarkably well-preserved Roman Montefortino helmet off the western coast of Sicily, near the Aegadian Islands, dating back to the First Punic War (264–241 BC). This conflict marked the beginning of Rome’s long struggle with Carthage for control of the western Mediterranean. Key Highlights: Helmet Type: Montefortino, known for its conical bronze form, mushroom-shaped knob, flared rim, and neck guard. It was standard Roman military gear from approximately 300 BC to the 1st century AD. Condition: Intact, with both cheekpieces preserved—a rare find for underwater artifacts. Battle Context: Likely from the Battle of the Aegates (241 BC), the decisive naval engagement that ended the First Punic War and gave Rome control of Sicily. Ongoing Survey: Sicily’s Superintendency of the Sea has been conducting underwater studies for over 15 years, uncovering a treasure trove of artifacts, including bronze rams (rostra), weapons, and other helmets. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2025/09/intact-roman-helmet-from-first-punic-war-discovered/155936 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates

A Roman centuria had only 80 legionaries, and not one hundred as would be expected. This short video below is as good an explanation as I’ve ever heard. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centuria

A Roman odeon (indoor theater) was uncovered in Sagalassos, Turkey. This was thought to be an enclosed structure seating around 2,500 people, the roof enhancing its acoustic properties. It was discovered around a fountain dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian. https://www.mehmetakif.edu.tr/en/content/12241/1/turkey's-third-largest-odeon-is-being-uncovered-in-sagalassos

A 2000-year old Roman bridge has been found in Aegerten, Switzerland. Dendrochronological techniques have dated this bridge in 49 BCE, when the Romans defeated the Helvetii. The final restorations of the bridge occurred in AD 369. A well-preserved wooden and iron plane (pictured below) was found in the oxygen-poor, damp soil that preserved the tool. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2025/09/2000-year-old-roman-bridge-found-in-aegerten/155914 https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/roman-bridge-switzerland-0022409# A post about dating wood through dendrochronology

Two portions of a Roman-era mosaic from the second to third century AD have been recovered in Turkey after being illegally trafficked. 🧩 Rare Roman Mosaics Seized in Türkiye: Myth, Smuggling, and Cultural Rescue In a significant effort to protect cultural heritage, Turkish authorities have confiscated a set of rare Roman-era mosaics in Gaziantep’s Nurdağı district, uncovering a smuggling operation involving three suspects attempting to sell historically valuable artifacts through illegal channels. The mosaics—now held by the Gaziantep Museum Directorate—include vibrant images of a crowned sea goddess (possibly Amphitrite or Thalassa), hippocamps, nereids, and other mythical marine creatures. These mosaics are believed to originate from a Roman villa or bath complex, showcasing exquisite craftsmanship and iconography. Their stylistic features suggest strong connections to Greco-Roman mythological traditions, particularly those related to sea deities and cosmological symbolism. The seizure not only prevents further cultural loss but also demonstrates Türkiye’s commitment to combating the illegal antiquities trade, which threatens both academic research and national heritage tourism. https://arkeonews.net/rare-ancient-mosaics-seized-in-turkiye-crowned-sea-goddess-and-mythical-creatures-uncovered-in-smuggling-plot/

Here’s another article on the reoccupation of Pompeii after the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79, including a newborn burial that dates to AD 100-200. 🏛️ Key Discoveries Post-eruption Reoccupation: Contrary to long-held beliefs, Pompeii was not entirely abandoned after Vesuvius erupted. Excavations in the Insula Meridionalis reveal that survivors and later settlers—often of lower social status—returned and repurposed the ruins for their own use. Living Among the Ashes: People repurposed buried structures, using upper floors for living and converting lower levels into cellars. Warehouses were subdivided, ovens built, and cisterns reused—evidence of a subsistence economy. Material Culture: Finds include ceramics, coins from successive emperors, and Christian oil lamps bearing the Chi-Rho symbol, indicating two major phases of reoccupation: late 1st–early 3rd centuries CE, and 4th–mid-5th century CE. Poignant Evidence: A newborn’s burial dated between 100–200 CE underscores the human dimension of this reoccupation. 🧠 Historical Context Ancient authors such as Suetonius and Cassius Dio mention imperial efforts to rebuild Pompeii, including funding from estates of heirless victims. However, the city never regained its civic vitality or infrastructure. Director Gabriel Zuchtriegel critiques the “archaeological unconscious” that has long overlooked post-eruption Pompeii in favor of its dramatic destruction. 🌋 Final Abandonment Pompeii’s final inhabitants fled following another eruption in 472 CE, just prior to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. https://archaeologymag.com/2025/08/pompeii-after-vesuvius-reoccupation/

Here's a short video on how the Ancient Romans dated the year. Although simplified, it's very informative. It seems consular dating was the preferred method most of the time. The Romano-Egyptians preferred regnal years (based on the year of an emperor’s reign), however. You can see this on the Romano-Egyptian coins from that period. Below is a Roman coin from Egypt dated to year two of Domitian’s reign (L = year, B = 2). The Romano-Egyptians probably preferred dating in regnal years (instead of the consular years mentioned in the video above) because of a long-standing tradition of using regnal years in Egypt, especially favored by the Ptolemaic Dynasty, which predates the Romans' arrival in Egypt. https://coinweek.com/coins-of-roman-egypt/ Here is an explanation of dating Romano-Egyptian coins. https://www.forumancientcoins.com/numiswiki/view.asp?key=greek dates There was also a system of dating based on the “ab urbe condita” (AUC), which counts the years since the city’s founding. This method was not used in daily life but for commemorative purposes, such as celebrating 1000 years since Rome’s founding. You can see this dating on a coin of Philip the Arab, which bears the inscription “SAECVLARES AVGG” or “Secular Games of the Emperors.” This coin commemorates the 1000th anniversary of Rome’s founding in 1001 AUC (AD 248). https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita

During renovation of a market hall in a town in Southern France, archaeologists have uncovered a fifth century Christian cathedral and baptistery. The findings were discovered in Vence, France, near Nice. 🏛️ Unearthing a Forgotten Cathedral: Vence, France Discovery Overview: During renovations of the market halls in Vence (Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur), archaeologists uncovered the remains of a 5th-century paleo-Christian cathedral and baptistery, preserved in exceptional condition. The site spans over 30 meters and includes: Foundations of the cathedral An intact octagonal baptistery with a Roman concrete-lined font Over 30 elite burials, likely bishops, canons, and local dignitaries Remnants of Roman dwellings beneath the church structure Historical Significance: Experts describe the find as “exceptional,” providing rare insights into early Christian architecture and liturgical practices in southern Gaul. Baptism at that time was performed by full immersion, and the baptistery shows no later modifications—an archaeological rarity. The site displays the development of Christian worship from Late Antiquity through the High Middle Ages, including evidence of bell-casting in the nave after the cathedral’s abandonment in the 11th century. Public Access & Preservation: Instead of stopping development, the municipality will incorporate the remains into the new commercial complex. The baptistery will be visible under a glass floor. The cathedral’s apse and select tombs may also be displayed beneath transparent coverings. Contextual Importance: Vence was a key episcopal hub between Italy and southern France. The discovery is similar to other finds at Notre-Dame in Paris, where tombs were connected to known bishops. Fabien Blanc-Garidel, head of Nice’s archaeological service, noted that such discoveries occur “only once every 50 or 60 years in Europe.” https://thecatholicherald.com/article/ancient-cathedral-unearthed-beneath-french-market-after-1-500-years https://www.lefigaro.fr/nice/une-cathedrale-paleochretienne-decouverte-pres-de-nice-20250731# Below is a short video on France’s conversion to Christianity:

There have been many previous posts about Carthage (see below). Here is Dan Snow’s excellent video review of the relationship between Rome and Carthage. He is joined by Eve MacDonald, historian and author of “Carthage: A New History of an Ancient Empire.” Podcast of this episode: https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/dan-snows-history-hit/id1042631089?i=1000723749228

Herculaneum was preserved by a pyroclastic surge (as opposed to vulcanite ash like Pompeii). This created the unusual conditions for the preservation of wooden objects at Herculaneum. Carbonized and preserved organic materials such as wood, food, textiles, and papyrus scrolls can be found in Herculaneum (see video below). I have not been to either site, but I’m usually short of time when I travel to Italy. I might go to Herculaneum if my schedule were tight. You are correct about the Villa of the Papyri being closed, but the Getty Villa in Malibu, California is modeled after it (see below). It is a lot closer to me than either Pompeii or Herculaneum.

A few years ago, there was an interesting thread on the population density of Rome.

Here’s an interesting academic article on the Roman frontiers. I think we previously viewed the frontier too simply, either as a rigid defensive barrier or as a porous gate that only controlled commerce. Breeze offers a more nuanced view of the frontiers and how their roles changed depending on regional needs, political pressures, and hostilities. Here is a list of the traditional 21 functions of the Roman frontier that Breeze examines: Defence against major invasions (Daniels 1979: 360; Bidwell 2005: 74, 2008: 142) Protection against raiding (Bidwell 2005: 74; Breeze 2011: 189–190; Hanson 2014, 7–8) To protect travellers in the frontier zone (Rushworth 1996: 303) To control civilian movement (Breeze and Dobson 2000: 40) In North Africa, to control transhumance (Daniels 1987: 244; Cherry 1998: 59–66) A customs barrier and passport control point (Cherry 1998: 59–66) An exercise to keep the troops busy (James 2013: 159) To keep the peace in a volatile area where the construction of the frontier had incited attacks (Isaac 1990: 214–215) To put the soldiers somewhere when towns were not available (Hodgson 1989: 177–189) To protect the soldiers (Cherry 1998: 59–66) A shield to allow the peaceful development of the province (Birley 1956) The creation of a stable frontier (Shotter 1996: 70) A statement of Hadrian’s commitment to ‘imperial containment’ (Everitt 2009: 225) A base for operations beyond the frontier (Bruce 1863: 26; Perowne 1960: 86–87) A reflection of Rome’s failure to conquer the rest of the world (Mann 1974: 508) A (psychological) edge to the empire for the Romans (Sommer 2015: 50–51) A piece of rhetoric (Mann 1990: 53) A symbol to intimidate the enemy (Robertson 1979: 34; Crow 1991: 59; Driessen 2005; Mattingly 2006: 158) In the case of Hadrian’s Wall, to build a monument to Hadrian (Breeze and Dobson 2000: 32) A symbolic act of building (DeLaine 2002: 220–221; Breeze and Ferris 2016: 27–29) To keep the soldiers fit (Forster 1915) 🔍 Central Thesis Breeze argues that Roman frontier studies have been sidelined in UK academic circles because of post-colonial discomfort with imperialism, militarism, and violence. However, he maintains that these studies are crucial for understanding Rome’s relationships with neighboring peoples, how its military operated, and the broader dynamics of empire. 📉 Why Frontier Studies Fell Out of Favor Post-Colonial Sensitivities: Modern scholars often see Roman imperialism as morally problematic, which makes them hesitant to study its military system. Breeze argues that ignoring violence skews historical understanding. Perceived Exhaustion of Hadrian’s Wall Research: Some believe that most questions about Hadrian’s Wall have already been answered. Breeze refutes this, noting that early researchers only solved the problems they defined, leaving much unexplored. Shift Toward Social History: There is a growing focus on indigenous agency and colonial discourse. Breeze agrees that this is important but contends that frontier studies can also play a valuable role in advancing these aims. Criticism of Narrow Focus: Roman frontier scholars are sometimes perceived as overly fixated on details. Breeze defends detailed study as the foundation for broader insights, as long as it doesn’t turn into pedantry. Historians often overlook frontier archaeology, considering it inconclusive or irrelevant. Breeze refers to this as “limes denial” and advocates for combining archaeological evidence with textual sources. 🧭 What Frontier Studies Can Reveal Military deployment patterns at frontier installations reflect Rome’s strategic priorities, local geography, and perceived threats. For example, the Danube frontier shows dense fortifications in fertile, accessible areas. Dacia’s Mountain Defense Roman deployment in Dacia utilized natural geography (the Carpathians) to observe and react to threats, demonstrating adaptive frontier planning. Hadrian’s Wall as Case Study Breeze highlights two distinct phases of construction: Phase 1: Milecastles and turrets for controlling movement. Phase 2: Forts added astride the Wall, increasing mobility and suggesting readiness for field operations north of the barrier. The addition of the Vallum (a rear ditch and bank system) further restricted civilian movement, implying a closed frontier system. Breeze provides a framework for future research on Roman frontiers by presenting 21 theories about the function of Roman borders. 🧭 The 21 Theories of Roman Frontier Function Grouped thematically for clarity: 🛡️ Military & Strategic Defense against invasion Control of raiding Provision of warning of attack Provision of time to respond to attack Provision of a base for attack Provision of a base for expansion Provision of a base for reconquest 🚧 Control & Regulation Control of movement of people Control of movement of animals Control of movement of goods Control of customs and taxation Control of disease 🏛️ Administrative & Political Marking the edge of the empire Marking the edge of provincial jurisdiction Marking the edge of military command Marking the edge of legal authority 🧠 Psychological & Symbolic Demonstration of power Intimidation of neighbors Monumental display of imperial authority Symbol of Roman civilization vs. barbarism 🔄 Adaptive & Multifunctional Changing function over time and space 🧠 Summary of Breeze’s Argument with Theories Integrated Breeze argues that Roman frontiers were not monolithic in purpose. Instead, they served multiple overlapping functions, which varied by region, era, and political context. For example: Hadrian’s Wall may have initially served to control movement and mark imperial boundaries, but later evolved into a base for mobile operations and defense. Danubian frontiers emphasized strategic deployment and rapid response, while Dacia’s mountainous defenses used terrain to monitor and contain threats. Literary sources like Tacitus and Ammianus Marcellinus support theories of intimidation, control, and symbolic power, while inscriptions and archaeology demonstrate practical applications such as taxation and disease management. Breeze warns against reducing frontier studies to a single theory. Instead, he urges scholars to analyze these 21 functions using archaeological and textual evidence, emphasizing the diversity and adaptability of frontier systems. https://traj.openlibhums.org/article/id/3995/

An ancient Roman apartment building has been uncovered beneath a public square during subway construction. It is believed to date from the first century BCE. 🏛️ Ancient Roman Apartment Complex Unearthed Beneath Piazza Venezia During subway construction near Rome’s Piazza Venezia, archaeologists uncovered a remarkably well-preserved Roman apartment complex dating back more than 2,000 years. The site offers a rare glimpse into urban life during the late Republic and early Imperial periods. 🧱 Key Features Multi-story residential building featuring preserved staircases, frescoed walls, and domestic areas such as kitchens and latrines. Chronological layering: The site features remnants from the Republican era, Imperial modifications, and traces of 19th-century palaces demolished during Mussolini’s regime. Artifacts and materials indicate middle-class or artisan residents, providing insight into non-elite Roman life.. 🕰️ Historical Significance The excavation serves as a palimpsest of Roman urban development, illustrating how architectural styles and functions changed over centuries. Archaeologist Daniela Polo described it as “a beautiful tapestry of various eras,” highlighting its importance in understanding Rome’s layered history. This discovery adds to a series of recent finds in Rome, including a baptistry-turned-church near the Appian Way and an ancient laundry site near the Vatican. https://totalnews.com/found-in-rome-during-subway-construction-ancient-apartment-complex-is-older-than-christ/ Unearthed in Rome during subway work, ancient apartment building predates Christ | Fox News

A stunning Roman-era stele has been found in Northern Syria: 🏛️ Discovery of a Roman Stele in Manbij, Syria A 2,000-year-old Roman basalt stele was discovered in Manbij, a city in northern Syria historically called Hierapolis or “Sacred City.” The stele features: An eagle holding a wreath, representing Roman imperial authority. A Greek inscription indicating cultural blending during Roman rule. The artifact was found near the cardamom market by a local resident and reported to the Directorate of Museums and Antiquities, which secured it for preservation and study. 🏺 Historical and Cultural Context Manbij’s Ancient Significance: Once a significant Aramaic and Assyrian city, it thrived under the Seleucid dynasty and became a center for the worship of Atargatis, the Syrian fertility goddess. Lucian of Samosata, a 2nd-century Syrian essayist, documented the city’s religious practices in his treatise De Dea Syria, written in Ionic Greek. ⚠️ Modern Challenges Manbij has experienced extensive looting and antiquities smuggling, especially during the Syrian Civil War and under ISIS control. https://archaeologymag.com/2025/08/roman-basalt-stele-unearthed-in-manbij https://greekreporter.com/2025/08/23/two-thousand-year-old-stele-greek-inscriptions-syria/

Here’s a nice summary article on the difference between visiting Herculaneum v. Pompeii. https://www.italianartventures.com/herculaneum-vs-pompeii-the-difference/

Food historian Sally Grainger, who has degree a degree in ancient history, has used her knowledge and passion to write a book on Ancient Roman cuisine “Roman Recipes for Modern Cooks.” She started out as a chef in Britain, but pursued her passions for Ancient Roman food. https://www.kcrw.com/culture/shows/good-food/whey-dairy-industry-anchovies-ancient-roman-recipes-ucla-food-studies/roman-recipes-modern-cooks-sally-grainger Here’s are some videos on her work:

A new comic book series, “Circus Maximus,” has been created. Here’s the background: • Creative Team Writer: Mark Sable, known for Miskatonic and historical fiction Artist: Giorgio Pontrelli, a Roman native with deep ties to the city's ruins Colors: Emilio Lecce Letters: Dave Sharpe Covers: Paul Azaceta and Francesco Francavilla https://bleedingcool.com/comics/circus-maximus-the-heist-comic-set-while-rome-burns/

An ancient counterweight to assure accuracy in commercial transactions has been found in Jerusalem. It dates from 147-148 BCE. The date indicated on the counterweight was 165 BCE of the Seleucid Era. Article summary: 🕵️‍♂️ Discovery & Context A rare lead weight from the Hellenistic period, dated to 147–148 BCE, was recovered in Jerusalem during an operation by the Israel Antiquities Authority’s Unit for the Prevention of Antiquities Theft. It was found in an antiquities shop following intelligence efforts. 📜 Inscription & Historical Significance The artifact features a Greek inscription: “Heliodorus son of Apollonius, agoranomos,” referring to a market overseer responsible for regulating weights and measures to prevent fraud. The names imply connections to Greek sun gods, indicating cultural Hellenization in the region. ⚖️ Precision & Symbolism The weight is highly accurate—equivalent to one mina (100 Greek drachmas)—and features a dolphin illustration. Researchers believe this symbol could help identify the artifact’s city of origin, as ancient cities often used distinct emblems. https://www.israelhayom.com/2025/08/19/jerusalem-2150-old-dolphin-artifact-found-in-special-operation/

A gold quarter-drachma has been discovered in Jerusalem. It depicts Queen Berenice II, wife of Ptolemy III, and was minted between 246 and 241 BCE. The coin was minted in Alexandria, possibly as military payment after campaigns against the Seleucid Empire during the Third Syrian War. This coin and other finds from the mid-third century BCE support the idea that Jerusalem was already in the midst of recovering after the destruction of the First Temple (Solomon’s Temple) by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. During the Third Syrian War (246-241 BCE), Ptolemy III invaded the Seleucid Empire, but was forced to abandon the campaign as a result of unrest in Egypt. 🪙 Rare Gold Coin of Queen Berenice II Unearthed in Jerusalem Archaeologists in Jerusalem’s City of David National Park discovered a tiny, nearly pure gold quarter-drachma minted between 246–241 BCE for Queen Berenice II, wife of Ptolemy III. The coin was discovered in the Givati Parking Lot excavation, making it the first of its kind ever found in a controlled archaeological context outside Egypt. On the obverse, Berenice is depicted wearing a diadem and veil, adorned with a necklace. The reverse shows a cornucopia flanked by two stars, symbolizing prosperity and fertility, along with the Greek inscription: “of Queen Berenice.” Experts believe the coin was likely minted in Alexandria and may have been given as a reward to soldiers returning from the Third Syrian War. The find challenges the long-held view that post-First Temple Jerusalem was a marginal town, suggesting instead that it was economically and politically connected to major Hellenistic centers. Only about 20 of these coins are known globally, and this is the first ever found in Jerusalem, making it a discovery of exceptional historic significance. https://www.jpost.com/archaeology/article-864777 https://www.timesofisrael.com/rare-gold-coin-depicting-hellenic-queen-unearthed-in-jerusalem-dig/

Barry Strauss, a prolific author on the Classical world, has written what appears to be an interesting book about the conflict between Ancient Rome and the Jews. Here's an engaging interview with Barry Strauss and his Classicist colleague, Victor Davis Hanson. Here's a quick review of the conflict: The ancient Jewish conflicts with Rome were a series of intense and devastating uprisings that lasted about 70 years, from 66 to 135 CE. These revolts were driven by a strong desire for religious freedom, political independence, and resistance to Roman rule. Here's a breakdown of the major conflicts: 🏛️ The Three Major Jewish–Roman Wars 1. The First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) Cause: Rising tensions over Roman taxation, religious interference, and corrupt governance. Key Events: Jewish rebels seized Jerusalem. Rome responded with a brutal siege led by General Titus. Destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE—an event that profoundly shaped Jewish history. Final resistance at Masada, where Jewish defenders committed mass suicide rather than surrender. Outcome: Massive loss of life, destruction of Jerusalem, and the beginning of widespread Jewish diaspora. 2. The Kitos War (115–117 CE) Cause: Jewish uprisings in Roman provinces like Egypt, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica during Emperor Trajan’s reign. Key Events: Jewish communities revolted violently against Roman rule. Roman retaliation was swift and severe. Outcome: Annihilation of Jewish populations in several regions; deepened Roman hostility toward Jews. 3. The Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 CE) Cause: Emperor Hadrian’s ban on circumcision and plans to build a Roman temple over the ruins of the Jewish Temple. Leader: Simon bar Kokhba, seen by many as a messianic figure. Outcome: Massive Jewish casualties: Roman forces under Emperor Hadrian crushed the rebellion with overwhelming brutality. Ancient sources like Cassius Dio estimate 580,000 Jews killed, though this number is debated. Many towns and villages were razed, and survivors were enslaved or displaced. Destruction of Judea: The province was devastated. Archaeological evidence reveals widespread ruin, particularly in rebel strongholds like Betar, where Bar Kokhba made his final stand. End of Jewish political autonomy: The revolt ended hopes for a restored Jewish kingdom. Bar Kokhba, hailed by some as the Messiah, was killed, and no further large-scale Jewish military uprisings occurred in Judea. Religious and cultural suppression: Hadrian briefly banned circumcision, renamed Judea as Syria Palaestina to erase Jewish identity, and rebuilt Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina, a Roman city with a temple to Jupiter on the Temple Mount. Rabbinic Judaism’s rise: With the Temple permanently gone and messianic militarism discredited, Jewish leadership shifted toward the rabbis and the development of the Mishnah and Talmud. Diaspora deepens: The Jewish population in Judea was decimated. Many Jews fled or were exiled, speeding up the move toward a dispersed, diasporic identity.

Previous discoveries have been made at the sunken city of Baiae in the Gulf of Naples. Archaeologists believe they may have identified part of a well-preserved Roman thermal bath complex that was part of Cicero's villa, based on its location and architectural features. 🔍 Key Highlights: The baths were found in Portus Iulius, a Roman naval base turned luxury enclave. The complex includes a laconicum (dry sauna), a hypocaust heating system, and intricate mosaic floors. The preservation is exceptional, offering rare insight into elite Roman leisure culture. Historical texts suggest Cicero owned a villa in this area, making the identification plausible. Thermal Baths of Cicero’s Villa Discovered in the Ancient Sunken City of Baiae

A Roman army has marched in the Cotswolds village of Birdlip. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cq87403jx14o

I am the last person to ask about military matters. But let me try to answer your question. The longer pikes required two hands; therefore, carrying a shield would be both awkward and physically exhausting. The earlier Greeks used shorter pikes compared to the more famous Macedonian ones, which were nearly twice as long. Only the earlier Greek pikemen carried shields. In contrast, Macedonian pikes required two hands, so soldiers did not carry shields. The Romans preferred the sword and shield for several reasons: Pikemen (like Macedonian phalanxes) excel in tight formations on flat terrain. Roman legions were designed for maneuverability, terrain adaptability, and independent unit action. The manipular system (e.g., hastati, principes, triarii) allowed Roman units to rotate, reinforce, or retreat fluidly—something a pike block couldn’t do. Interestingly, the use of pikemen remained important even for British King William III at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. The estimated ratio of pikemen to musketeers at that battle was between 1:5 and 1:6.