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The 2026 Winter Olympics in Milan begins this February 6 through the 22nd. The Olympic flame is ignited several weeks before the opening ceremony at the main site of the the ancient Olympics in Olympia, Greece by a group of women representing the Vestal Virgins at a celebration at the Temple of Hera. The Olympic torch is then transported to the site of the games. Below is a video of the actor Jackie Chan participated in the Olympic torch relay through Pompeii.

Thanks for the link. They do good work.

There is a great debate about whether either the Phoenicians or their later colony, the Carthaginians, practiced child sacrifice. Many cultures have been known to practice child sacrifice (see post below): Plutarch (AD 50-120) certainly thought so: —Plutarch, Moralia II.171C Note: Plutarch wrote more than a century after the final destruction of Carthage (146 BCE). The Bible contains numerous quotes condemning child sacrifices carried out by the Phoenicians, who were ancestors of the Carthaginians. Leviticus: 18:21: Molek was once believed to be a Canaanite/Phoenician deity, but recent research suggests that the name Molek may refer to a particular type of sacrifice rather than to a deity. Moses' instructions to Israel as it entered Canaan (the home of the Phoenicians) are found in Deuteronomy 12:31: Another passage in Jeremiah 32:35: Note about these Biblical quotes: ✔ The biblical passages predate Carthage’s rise. ✔ They refer to Canaanite/Phoenician practices in the Levant, not to Punic (Carthaginian) practices in North Africa. ✔ Later Greco-Roman writers made similar accusations against Carthage, but that is a separate tradition. Here is a quote by Diodorus Siculus, the Greek historian from Roman Sicily, writing in the 1st century BCE about Carthage: Diodorus Siculus is a significant ancient historian. Although his writings provide valuable insights, they are frequently seen as derivative, somewhat uncritical, and sometimes inconsistent in timeline. He often copies earlier sources with minimal scrutiny, making the trustworthiness of his accounts reliant on those sources' quality. Contemporary scholars value him for safeguarding material that might have otherwise disappeared, yet they scrutinize his narrative carefully. Scholars cite this passage from Tertullian's Apologeticum 9.2-3 when discussing Punic child sacrifice continuing into Roman Africa after the Carthaginian Empire had been vanquished. This would support the idea that the practice of child sacrifice persisted even later, suggesting that it was a long-standing tradition among the Carthaginians. The issue with this quote attributed to Tertullian (AD 155-220) is that there is no historical evidence of a "proconsul Tiberius" in Africa. The reference appears isolated and lacks confirmation. Tertullian, born and active in Roman Carthage, was a Christian apologist. His statement may have been made for rhetorical effect rather than as a historical fact. While it might reflect local tradition, it could also be pure myth. Here are articles that support the belief that the Carthaginians did, in fact, perform child sacrifice: Ancient Carthaginians really did sacrifice their children | University of Oxford At Carthage, Child Sacrifice? - Biblical Archaeology Society And here is an excellent article that refutes the belief: Two tales of one city: data, inference and Carthaginian infant sacrifice | Antiquity | Cambridge Core Tophets were sacred Phoenician‑Punic sanctuaries (pictured above) located across the Mediterranean — in places like Carthage, Sardinia, Sicily, North Africa, and possibly Malta. These sites held thousands of urns containing the cremated remains of infants and were linked to offerings to Tanit and Baal Hammon. While Carthage's tophet was the largest, it was part of a wider Punic religious tradition rather than an isolated occurrence. Adrian Goldsworthy had a thoughtful evaluation of the evidence for Carthaginian child sacrifices:

A Roman enamelled fibula (brooch) has been unearthed near Grudziądz, Poland. A fibula is a brooch or pin used to fasten garments. It works on the safety-pin principle. Romans used it to secure cloaks, tunics, and other garments. 🏺 Summary of the Article Rare Roman Era Enamelled Fibula Found Near Grudziądz A metal-detection survey by the Grudziądz Fortress Association uncovered a rare enameled Roman-era fibula near Grudziądz in northern Poland — only the second known example of this type in the country. The team immediately notified the Voivodeship Conservation Authority. The find is part of a larger collection from the area, including Roman ceramics, several fibulae, a cosmetic spoon, belt pendant fragments, a spur, a hair ornament, a Teutonic coin, and a Scythian spearhead. This variety indicates a multicultural settlement along the Amber Road, the primary north–south trade route connecting the Baltic region to the Roman world. The similarity to a fibula from the Wielbark culture cemetery at Babi Dół-Borcz suggests cultural continuity. Enamelled brooches of this kind were made in Gaul and Rhaetia from the late 1st to the mid-2nd century AD. Girls frequently wore them and may have used them as ornaments, toys, or protective amulets. The recent discovery will eventually be exhibited at the Museum in Bydgoszcz. 🧭 Added Context and Interpretation 1. Why this fibula matters archaeologically This is not just another brooch — it’s a high-status provincial Roman luxury item found far beyond the imperial frontier. Its presence in the Grudziądz region underscores several key points: Roman goods were enjoyed throughout non-Roman Europe, especially along the famous Amber Road. This shows how far Roman trade and culture extended into the region, underscoring their impressive reach and influence. Elites of the Wielbark culture, linked to early Gothic migrations, selectively incorporated Roman material culture. The highly similar match to the Babi Dół-Borcz fibula indicates shared cultural traditions, potentially including interregional workshops or the movement of artisans. The enamel technique, requiring specialized skill, underscores the impressive craftsmanship and Roman influence, evoking admiration for ancient artisans' expertise. 2. The Amber Road as a cultural corridor The Grudziądz region lies near one of the major branches of the Amber Road. By the 1st–2nd century AD: Baltic amber was a luxury commodity in Rome, used in jewelry, medicine, and elite display. In exchange, Roman merchants (or intermediaries) supplied fibulae, glassware, coins, and cosmetic tools — all of which are present in the local assemblage. The presence of a Scythian spearhead suggests even older or more diverse cultural layers, underscoring its long-standing strategic importance. This site may have served as a nodal point where Goths, local Baltic groups, and Roman traders interacted. 3. Wielbark culture and the Goths The Wielbark culture (1st–4th c. AD): Originated in Pomerania and is associated with the Gothic migration from Scandinavia. Known for rich female burials, often with brooches, beads, and Roman imports. Avoided weapons in graves — making fibulae especially important as identity markers. The child’s grave at Babi Dół-Borcz, with its enameled fibula, exemplifies Wielbark culture practices, and the Grudziądz find further indicates the presence or influence of this culture in the area, highlighting regional interactions. 4. Typology and dating Enamelled disc fibulae with radiating knobs are typically dated to: Late 1st century AD (Flavian period) through Mid‑2nd century AD (Antonine period) Their distribution peaks in: Gaul (modern France/Belgium) and Rhaetia (southern Germany/Switzerland) Finding one in Poland indicates long-distance movement, likely through gift exchange, trade, or diplomatic contact. 5. Possible functions beyond ornamentation The article notes they may have served as toys or amulets. Additional interpretations include: The bright enamel and radial symmetry likely served to protect against harm. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2025/12/rare-roman-era-enamelled-fibula-found-near-grudziadz/156675 Here's a previous post on a less elegant fibula found in Britain:

I enjoy everyone’s company here. I appreciate anyone reading my posts. And I am grateful for any comment or criticism. Let’s have a healthy and sane 2026. The lockdowns and COVID were brutal to our UNRV community and the world. So, let’s bring on the new year.

Below is an excellent article on the Emperor Julian (Augustus from 361-363): The Apostate in Antioch: Emperor Julian’s Civic Strife – Antigone

An ancient mikveh (Jewish ritual bath) has been discovered during excavations at the Western Wall at the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Fire marks and ashes, along with two coins from the 1st century AD, confirm that the site is a remnant of the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD by the Romans. 🧱 The Discovery Archaeologists from the Israel Antiquities Authority and the Western Wall Heritage Foundation have discovered a 2,000-year-old mikveh near the Temple Mount, with walls and surrounding soil blackened by the fire that ravaged Jerusalem in 70 CE. The site is remarkably well preserved, with visible soot, ash, and heat-altered plaster, making it an exceptionally rare example of the Roman destruction layer. This mikveh is more than just dating from that period. It bears the physical scars of the same inferno that consumed the Second Temple when Roman forces set it on fire, ending Jewish life in the city for centuries. 🔥 The Fire of 70 CE, Preserved in Stone and Plaster According to Josephus, the Roman army’s assault culminated in the burning of the Temple and the surrounding Upper City. This excavation provides a material counterpart to that literary account: The mikveh’s walls are charred and smoke-stained. The surrounding soil is heat-reddened and ash-laden. The destruction layer lies directly atop the mikveh, sealing it like a time capsule. This is not a symbolic connection—it is the literal residue of the same fire that consumed the Temple. 🏺 Dating the Mikveh: Coins, Burn Layers, and Domestic Debris The fire layer itself serves as a chronological anchor. Because the mikveh lies beneath it, archaeologists can confidently date its construction to the late Second Temple period, before 70 CE. Additional finds further support this dating: Two 1st-century CE coins, currently undergoing laboratory cleaning and analysis. Pottery sherds, including domestic wares typical of late Second Temple Jerusalem. Glass fragments consistent with household use. Stone vessel fragments characteristic of Jewish purity practices of the period. As excavation director Dr. Amit Re’em Levy noted, the mikveh was “sealed under the burnt layer,” preserving everything inside it in situ. 🧬 What the Mikveh Reveals About Jerusalem Before the Fall 1. A Household Committed to Ritual Purity The presence of a private mikveh near the Temple Mount indicates: A family of means and status. Strict adherence to purity laws, even during the tense years leading up to the revolt. A neighborhood likely populated by priestly or elite Jewish households. 2. A Snapshot of Daily Life Interrupted The sealed debris—pottery, glass, stone vessels—captures the rhythms of ordinary life suddenly frozen by catastrophe. 3. Urban Geography of the Final Days Its proximity to the Temple Mount aligns with Josephus’s account of Roman forces burning the Upper City and its affluent districts first. 🔥 Archaeology, Text, and Trauma Converge This mikveh is among the clearest physical testimonies to the destruction of Jerusalem ever uncovered. While other sites—such as the Burnt House and the Herodian Quarter—contain destruction layers, few preserve the fire's traces so vividly. https://www.timesofisrael.com/fire-blackened-2000-year-old-mikveh-is-a-portal-into-70-ce-roman-conquest-of-jerusalem/

Here's a beautiful poem by British poet W. H. Auden (1907-1973) about the dreary life at the Wall, likely Hadrian's Wall. Roman Wall Blues by W. H. Auden Over the heather the wet wind blows, I've lice in my tunic and a cold in my nose. The rain comes pattering out of the sky, I'm a Wall soldier, I don't know why. The mist creeps over the hard grey stone, My girl's in *Tungria; I sleep alone. Aulus goes hanging around her place, I don't like his manners, I don't like his face. Piso's a Christian, he worships a fish; There'd be no kissing if he had his wish. She gave me a ring but I diced it away; I want my girl and I want my pay. Summary of the Poem In "Roman Wall Blues," the narrator is a Roman soldier stationed near the wall, contemplating his life and emotional distress. The poem begins with vivid images of severe weather, creating a somber mood. The soldier reveals his discomfort by mentioning lice in his tunic and a cold in his nose, highlighting his physical hardship and sense of isolation. Themes and Analysis Loneliness and Isolation: The soldier feels disconnected from his loved ones, especially his girl, who is far away in *Tungria. This distance intensifies his solitude, as he sleeps alone and is haunted by thoughts of her. Desire and Longing: The soldier's longing for companionship is palpable. He expresses jealousy of Aulus, who is pursuing his girl, and frustration with Piso, a Christian whose values conflict with his own desires. The Mundanity of Military Life: The poem captures the repetitive and often difficult experiences of military life. The soldier's longing for fair pay and a peaceful life, where he can simply gaze at the sky, shows how worn out and disconnected he feels from his current situation. Imagery and Tone: Auden beautifully uses vivid imagery to bring the soldier's environment and feelings to life. Phrases like "the wet wind blows" and "the rain comes pattering" paint a clear picture of the soldier's bleak surroundings, adding to the poem's touching and melancholic mood. *Interesting sidenote: Auden’s “Tungria” refers to the homeland of the Tungri, a real Roman-era people in the province of Gallia Belgica. Their territory roughly corresponds to modern eastern Belgium, centered on the city of Aduatuca Tungrorum — today’s Tongeren. 🛡 Why this matters in the poem The Tungri supplied auxiliary troops to the Roman army. Many Tungrian units were stationed along Hadrian’s Wall. So Auden’s soldier is imagining his girlfriend back home in Belgium, while he’s freezing in northern Britain. Roman Wall Blues - poem by Wystan Hugh Auden | PoetryVerse

A Roman inkwell from the first century AD has been discovered in Conimbriga, Portugal. Researchers have identified traces of a multi-ingredient ink composed of soot, bone black, iron-gall components, wax, and animal-based binders. (Residuals extracted for study are shown below.) This is known as a Biebrich-type inkwell, a distinctive bronze Roman inkwell named after Biebrich, a Roman military site in Germany where the first examples were identified. Below is a map of sites where other similar inkwells were found. https://arkeonews.net/a-2000-year-old-roman-inkwell-found-in-portugal-contains-a-technological-recipe-that-shouldnt-exist/ https://www.labrujulaverde.com/en/2025/11/exceptional-discovery-in-conimbriga-a-roman-inkwell-with-millennial-ink-reveals-the-secrets-of-writing-in-ancient-rome/

Recent excavations at the Villa Poppaea have uncovered frescoes, including the peacock fresco shown above. The villa is near Pompeii and has been associated with Poppaea Sabina, the wife of Nero. Like the city of Pompeii, the Villa Poppaea was destroyed by Vesuvius in AD 79. 🏛️ Key Points from the Article Location: Villa of Poppaea at Oplontis, near Pompeii. Focus: The Salone della Maschera e del Pavone (“Hall of the Mask and Peacock”), a grand reception room. Discoveries: Newly uncovered fresco fragments with vivid imagery of peacocks and theatrical masks. Decorative schemes in the Second Style (mid–1st century BCE) emphasize illusionistic architecture and refined motifs. Significance: The excavation clarifies the hall's true dimensions, which are larger and more elaborate than previously thought. Highlights the villa’s luxurious character, possibly associated with Poppaea Sabina, wife of Emperor Nero. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/villa-de-poppea-frescoes-2733430 https://pompeiisites.org/comunicati/il-raffinato-salone-della-maschera-e-del-pavone-della-villa-di-poppea-disvela-le-sue-reali-dimensioni-e-ricchezze-decorative-dal-cantiere-di-scavo-e-restauro-i-primi-affioramenti-di-affreschi/ 13-Journal 17_DIC.indd Here's an older video on the Villa Poppaea

In 2025, two Celtic gold coins were found in a Swiss bog, dating to the mid-third century BCE. These coins were struck after the Celtic sack of Rome in 390 BCE but before Caesar’s conquest of Gaul between 58 and 50 BCE, during a period when Rome's influence had not yet extended to the region. At that time, Celtic tribes such as the Helvetii, Rauraci, Boii, Insubres, and Taurisci still controlled the Alpine and trans-Alpine routes. Greek monetary influence remained prominent in the Western Alps. The discovery in a wetland fits the practice of depositing valuable items as offerings to deities or ancestors. The coins display Greek influence in their weight standards and imagery, Celtic reinterpretation through abstract motifs and local symbols, and demonstrate pre-Roman regional independence. One coin is a gold stater weighing about 7.8 grams, and the other is a quarter stater weighing approximately 1.86 grams. These early Celtic coins, inspired by Greek gold staters from the time of Philip II of Macedon, feature the head of Apollo on one side and a two-horse chariot on the other, highlighting their Mediterranean origins. Yet they also show Celtic modifications, such as a minimalist rendering of the horse. Here is a posthumous gold stater of Philip II, minted during the reign of Philip III (323-317 BCE), for comparison: https://archiqoo.com/news/en/rare+celtic+gold+coins+discovered+in+a+swiss+bog.php https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/2-300-year-old-celtic-gold-coins-found-in-swiss-bog

Video on the find:

This is another article on research into infections among Romans at Vindolanda on Hadrian’s Wall. An early post discussed related research at Hadrian’s Wall (see post below). Unlike previous research, however, recent studies have confirmed the presence of Giardia among the inhabitants. Analysis of samples from a latrine drain and nearby ditches at the Roman site of Vindolanda along Hadrian’s Wall reveals Ascaris, Trichuris, and Giardia duodenalis. These results provide additional evidence of gastrointestinal infections that were probably common among Roman military personnel and closely match those found in other parts of the Empire. The detection of sanitation-related parasites highlights the risk of fecal-oral transmission in Roman military settlements. Furthermore, this study underscores the value of sampling multiple locations along archaeological drainage systems to improve the detection of ancient parasites and to understand the site's drainage patterns better. 🏺 Summary of the Phys.org Article (Dec. 18, 2025) Roman soldiers at Vindolanda, near Hadrian’s Wall, were infected with three intestinal parasites: Roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides) Whipworm (Trichuris trichiura) Giardia duodenalis — the first confirmed evidence of Giardia in Roman Britain These parasites spread through fecal–oral contamination, indicating that sanitation at the fort—despite latrines and a sewer system—was insufficient to prevent infection. 🔬 How the Study Was Conducted Researchers from Cambridge and Oxford analyzed 50 sediment samples from a 3rd-century CE latrine drain at Vindolanda. 28% of samples contained whipworm or roundworm eggs. One sample tested positive for Giardia using ELISA, which detects parasite proteins found in Giardia. A sample from an earlier 1st-century fort ditch also contained whipworm and roundworm, showing continuity of poor sanitation across phases of occupation. 🩺 Health Impacts (as described in the article) Chronic infections likely caused: Diarrhea Nausea and cramping Malnutrition Fatigue and reduced physical performance Giardia outbreaks could have caused severe dehydration, especially in summer. Researchers note that Roman medical knowledge recognized worms but lacked effective treatments, allowing infections to persist for weeks or months. 🏛️ Historical and Archaeological Context Vindolanda’s waterlogged conditions preserve organic material exceptionally well (e.g., the famous writing tablets and thousands of shoes). The parasite profile resembles that of other Roman military sites (Carnuntum, Valkenburg, Bearsden), but urban sites (London, York) show more diverse parasite communities, including fish- and meat-eating tapeworms. The findings challenge romanticized ideas of Roman military hygiene: even with latrines and sewers, infrastructure did not equal adequate sanitation. 🧱 Environmental and Structural Insight The latrine drain carried waste to a nearby stream—likely contaminating local water sources. Communal latrines facilitated cross-infection. The presence of Giardia suggests water contamination, not just soil contamination. 1. Why Giardia Matters Giardia requires: Contaminated water A host population living in close quarters Repeated fecal–oral transmission cycles Its presence at Vindolanda indicates: Water sources were compromised, likely by the fort’s own drainage system. Roman engineering at the frontier was insufficient to prevent microbial contamination. Soldiers likely experienced episodic outbreaks rather than chronic helminth infections. This is a significant correction to older narratives that assumed Roman sanitation was uniformly adequate. 🧬 2. Clinical Implications for Military Readiness Chronic helminth infection + Giardia outbreaks = Reduced stamina, impaired nutrient absorption, and compromised immune function. For a frontier garrison: This would have affected patrols, construction labor, and combat readiness. It adds a biological dimension to the hardships described in the Vindolanda tablets (cold, supply shortages, morale issues). 🏺 3. Methodological Strength The study’s combination of: Microscopy (for helminth eggs) ELISA (for protozoan proteins such as Giardia) …represents a methodological advance in Roman parasitology. ELISA is rarely applied to ancient samples, and its success here opens the door for detecting other protozoa (e.g., Entamoeba histolytica). 🧠 4. Implications for Roman Frontier Studies This evidence reinforces a broader pattern: Roman frontier forts were crowded, damp, and unsanitary. Infrastructure was often symbolic (latrines as markers of Romanitas) rather than functionally hygienic. Environmental constraints in northern Britain (rain, clay soils, waterlogging) undermined Roman sanitation ideals. 🧬 Chronic helminth infection causes: Fatigue Abdominal pain Nutrient malabsorption Anemia 🦠 Giardia causes: Diarrhea Cramping Dehydration Episodic episodes of severe gastrointestinal distress https://share.google/Rrd2fz0pdwBF1NQHF https://thedebrief.org/an-ancient-sewer-system-is-revealing-how-disease-spread-among-roman-soldiers/ https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/parasitology/article/parasite-infections-at-the-roman-fort-of-vindolanda-by-hadrians-wall-uk/49A5CBC021F5C3D85D040D4FD1A9AD44

A first century AD marble Roman-era bathtub was discovered in Ephesus, Turkey. It is thought to have been for wealthy domestic use. The bathtub was later repurposed as a fountain trough, with holes cut to allow water to flow in from above and out from below. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkiye/roman-era-marble-bathtub-male-statue-unearthed-at-ancient-ephesus-in-turkish-aegean-region/3772011

I found this interesting article about the garments discovered in King Tut’s tomb (reign 1333 to 1323 BCE), including more than 145 loincloths. According to textile historians, the average ancient Egyptian loincloth had between 37 and 60 threads per inch, but King Tut’s underwear had 200 threads per inch, giving it a silk-like softness. 🏺 Key Highlights from the Article Discovery & Preservation: Tutankhamun was buried with an enormous wardrobe: 145 loincloths, 12 tunics, 10 belts, 28 gloves, 24 shawls, 25 head coverings, 47 pairs of shoes, and additional items. Many textiles were left in boxes since Howard Carter’s 1922 excavation, deteriorating rapidly until their rediscovery in the 1990s. Notable Garments: Tunic & Sash Combo: Simple linen tunics held together by decorative sashes. Gold-Sequined Tunic: Beaded with faience and gold, though deterioration was accelerated by its weight. Heb-Sed Outfit: Child-sized tunic decorated with jubilee hieroglyphs, linked to pharaonic festival rituals. “Syrian” Tunic: Sleeved garment with woven cartouches, griffins, sphinxes, and hunting scenes—likely a diplomatic gift from Mitanni. Falcon Tunic: Symbolic garment with falcon wings and lotus motifs, transforming Tut into the “Living Horus.” Leopard Skin Robe: Reserved for pharaohs and priests, used in funerary rituals like the “Opening of the Mouth” ceremony. https://www.ranker.com/list/king-tut-garments-recreation/shonna-wright

Here is an interesting article that addresses whether the Romans wore underwear. Above is a 2nd-century AD mosaic from Mérida, Spain, showing men wearing loincloths as they crush grapes. Below is the “bikini girls” mosaic from the Villa Romana del Casale in Sicily. The article examines the ambiguous state of Roman underwear, showing that while elite women likely wore the strophium (a bust-binding band), men and women often went without undergarments. Evidence is scarce, but mosaics, literary references, and surviving textiles suggest that underwear was situational—worn for exercise, labor, or modesty and tied to social status. 🏛️ Key Points from the Article Ambiguity of Evidence: Roman writers described clothing, jewelry, and hairstyles in detail but rarely mentioned underwear. Archaeological textiles are scarce, leaving scholars with mosaics and indirect references. Women’s Undergarments: The strophium was a cloth band worn around the bust, functioning like a bra. It reflected Roman beauty ideals—small busts were considered refined, whereas larger busts were associated with lower status and breastfeeding. Visual Evidence: The famous “bikini girls” mosaic from Villa Romana del Casale depicts women in bandeau tops and briefs engaged in exercise. These garments may have been athletic wear rather than everyday underwear. Men’s Undergarments: Loincloths are depicted among laborers, athletes, and enslaved workers. However, literary references to accidental exposure suggest many men did not wear underwear beneath tunics. Cultural Context: Roman society emphasized communal bathing, shared spaces, and household hierarchies. Privacy was not about concealing the body, so underwear carried less cultural weight than in modern societies. 👗 Additional Information on the Strophium Terminology: The strophium (sometimes called mamillare) was a narrow band of cloth, often linen or soft leather, wrapped tightly around the chest. Function: Provided support during physical activity. Flattened the bust to align with Roman ideals of beauty and refinement. Signaled social status, since elite women avoided breastfeeding, delegating it to enslaved wet nurses. Comparison to Modern Garments: The strophium resembled a bandeau bra or sports bra. Unlike modern bras, it emphasized compression rather than lift. Cultural Symbolism: A small bust was associated with elite femininity and refinement. A larger bust implied maternal labor and lower social standing. Thus, the strophium was not just functional but deeply tied to Roman social hierarchies and ideals of beauty. ⚖️ Risks of Misinterpretation Mosaics & Frescoes: Images like the “bikini girls” are late antique, not early imperial, and may represent athletic or decorative traditions rather than everyday clothing. Regional Variation: Roman clothing habits differed across provinces, centuries, and social classes. Soldiers, enslaved workers, and elites did not dress alike. Modern Projection: Assuming underwear was universal risks imposing modern notions of modesty onto Roman culture, which valued communal visibility of the body. 📌 Takeaway Roman underwear was not universal. The strophium was a distinctive garment for women, serving both functional and symbolic roles, while men’s loincloths were situational. Ultimately, underwear in Rome reflected status, beauty ideals, and practical needs more than modesty. https://www.historyextra.com/period/roman/ancient-roman-underwear-fashion-complicated-truth/

There was considerable controversy about the “Beachy Head” skull, whose initial studies suggested that she was a sub-Saharan woman of African descent (see post below) living in Roman Britain. However, later studies confirm that she was likely a local woman who appeared quite different from the typical sub-Saharan woman, contrary to early suspicions (see photo below). https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-15391383/black-Briton-white-Beachy-Head-Woman.html Recent research has clarified important details about the Beachy Head Woman. She was not of African or Mediterranean origin, but rather from the local British population of Roman-era southern England, as confirmed by high-quality DNA sequencing. Expanded Findings Discovery context: Her remains were rediscovered in 2012 in a box in Eastbourne Town Hall, labeled “Beachy Head (1959).” This sparked the Eastbourne Ancestors Project, which initially reconstructed her as African. Genetic analysis: Conducted by scientists at the Natural History Museum and University College London, using advanced sequencing techniques. Results published in the Journal of Archaeological Science (Dec 2025). DNA showed a strong similarity to rural Britons from the Roman period, not sub-Saharan or Mediterranean populations. Appearance: Likely had blue eyes, light hair, and intermediate skin tone. A new craniofacial reconstruction based on DNA and 3D scans corrected earlier depictions that showed her with dark skin and curly black hair. Life and health: Age at death: 18–25 years. Height: ~4.9 feet (1.5 m). Diet: seafood-rich, consistent with coastal living. Evidence of a healed leg wound suggests resilience and survival after trauma. Cultural significance: Earlier stories celebrated her as the “first black Briton,” and she was even honored by the BBC in 2016’s Black and British: A Forgotten History. The new findings overturn this, showing how scientific reinterpretation can reshape public memory and cultural identity. Her case highlights the fluidity of historical narratives when new evidence emerges. Implications Scientific lesson: Demonstrates the importance of revisiting past conclusions with improved technology. Social lesson: Reminds us how easily cultural narratives can be shaped—and reshaped—by incomplete evidence. Comparative note: Her reinterpretation contrasts with Cheddar Man, whose DNA suggested darker skin than previously thought, illustrating how stories about British ancestry can change in opposite directions based on new evidence. In short: Beachy Head Woman was a local Briton from Roman-era southern England, not from Africa or Cyprus. Her story shows how DNA analysis can overturn decades of assumptions and reshape both scientific and cultural stories.

Thank you for reading my post. It is amazing how extensive and popular Mithraism was throughout the Roman Empire, especially among legionaries and other soldiers. Note the evidence for the worship of Mithra in the far reaches of the Empire: Here was an older post on Mithraism

Zoroastrianism was the state religion of the Sassanian Empire (see post below), the great enemy of Rome. Here is a short video on the sacred eternal flame tended by a Zoroastrian priest.

Climate-related shifts in the Mediterranean grain trade prevented famine but facilitated the spread of the Black Death to medieval Europe. A 2022 study found that the plague called the Black Death, which devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, probably originated from wild rodents in what is now Kyrgyzstan. A new study suggests that an unidentified volcanic eruption in the tropics likely boosted European trade with Central Asia, thereby facilitating the spread of fleas infected with the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Scientists reached this conclusion by analyzing ice cores and tree rings and comparing that data with historical accounts describing cool summers and crop failures. Now, a new study suggests that a previously unknown volcanic eruption in the tropics likely boosted European trade with Central Asia, which carried fleas infected with the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Scientists reached this conclusion by examining ice cores and tree rings, comparing that data with historical records of cool summers and crop yield failures. Summary: The article argues that climate-driven changes in Mediterranean grain trade during the 14th century helped decrease famine in Europe but accidentally played a role in the spread of the Black Death. By linking climatic changes, trade routes, and disease transmission, the authors show how increased resilience to food shortages also raised the risk of exposure to the plague. Key Points from the Article The Black Death (1347–1353 CE) killed a large portion of Europe’s population. While the bacterium Yersinia pestis originated in Central Asia and spread to Europe via the Black Sea, the timing and speed of its spread remain debated. Climate and Grain Trade: Climatic fluctuations in the 14th century disrupted local harvests in Europe. Mediterranean grain imports, particularly from the Black Sea region, became essential in preventing famine. These trade routes created resilience against food shortages but also opened pathways for pathogens. Mechanism of Plague Introduction: Ships carrying grain from the Black Sea ports (e.g., Kaffa) also transported rats and fleas infected with Y. pestis. The intensified reliance on these routes during periods of climate stress increased Europe’s vulnerability to the introduction of plagues. Interdisciplinary Approach: The study integrates climate reconstructions, historical trade records, and epidemiological evidence to argue that the same networks that stabilized food supply also destabilized public health. Broader Implications: Highlights the dual role of trade networks: both protective (against famine) and destructive (spreading disease). Suggests parallels with modern global systems, where resilience to one crisis (e.g., food security) may amplify exposure to another (e.g., pandemics). Underscores the importance of considering climate–trade–health interconnections in historical and contemporary contexts. In essence, the article demonstrates that Europe’s survival strategy against famine—climate-driven grain imports—was the very mechanism that introduced the Black Death, reshaping demographic and social history. https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02964-0 https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/archaeology/a69646828/volcano-black-death/

This article examines the frequently neglected role of the Roman Balkans in serving as Rome's industrial backbone. The Roman Balkans spanned the entire Balkan Peninsula, including what is now Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Albania, North Macedonia, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, and parts of European Turkey. They served as Rome’s military boundary, industrial center, and cultural crossroads, vital to the empire’s survival. Traditional narrative challenged: Histories often highlight Spain (Hispania) or Dacia as the source of Rome’s metals and resources. The Balkans, however, provided equally crucial supplies. Resource wealth: Rich deposits of silver, gold, copper, and iron in Bosnia and Serbia. Kosovo’s fertile valleys and mines contributed to Rome’s coinage and military infrastructure. Integration into the empire: These regions were not merely peripheral regions; they were closely integrated into Rome’s economic system. Roads, forts, and mining settlements connected them directly to imperial logistics. Archaeological evidence: Excavations at sites like Viminacium (Serbia) and Ulpiana (Kosovo) reveal large-scale mining, smelting, and urban development. Longevity: The Balkans supplied Rome for over two centuries, underpinning both military campaigns and urban prosperity. 📚 Additional Context Viminacium (Serbia): A major Roman military camp and provincial capital in Moesia Superior. Excavations show extensive metallurgical activity and urban infrastructure. Ulpiana (Kosovo), known as urbs Dardaniae, was a center of mining and trade. In late antiquity, Emperor Justinian rebuilt it, highlighting its strategic importance. Bosnia’s mines: Roman exploitation of silver and lead mines in Bosnia (e.g., Srebrenica region) was central to coinage production. Strategic geography: The Balkans sat at the crossroads of east-west and north-south trade routes, making them indispensable for troop movement and supply chains. Cultural integration: Romanization in these regions was widespread; Latin inscriptions, urban planning, and Roman law profoundly influenced the area, although local traditions persisted. Challenges & Risks Frontier instability: Despite their wealth, these provinces were vulnerable to invasions (Goths, Huns, Slavs), which eventually disrupted Rome’s control. Environmental strain: Intensive mining and deforestation altered landscapes, leaving long-term ecological impacts. Modern recognition: Only recently have archaeologists emphasized the Balkans’ role, correcting a Western-centric narrative of Rome’s economy. Bosnia, Serbia, and Kosovo were not mere borderlands; they actively fueled Roman strength by supplying metals, manpower, and strategic infrastructure. Their vital role was key to Rome’s endurance but is frequently overlooked in conventional histories. https://arkeonews.net/from-the-balkans-to-rome-how-bosnia-serbia-and-kosovo-quietly-strengthened-an-empire/#google_vignette The Balkans were pivotal to Rome's success: 🛡️ Military Role Recruitment hub: The Balkans provided a steady stream of soldiers for Rome’s legions. Many emperors of the 3rd–4th centuries (e.g., Diocletian, Constantine) were of Balkan origin, reflecting the region’s military importance. Frontier defense: Provinces like Moesia, Dacia, and Thrace guarded Rome’s northern boundary against Goths, Huns, and later Slavs. Fortified cities and camps (e.g., Viminacium, Singidunum/Belgrade) were key to frontier security. Strategic crossroads: Control of the Balkans enabled Rome to quickly move troops between Italy, Asia Minor, and the Danube frontier. ⚒️ Economic Contributions Mining wealth: Bosnia, Serbia, and Kosovo yielded silver, gold, copper, and iron, fueling coinage and arms production. Agriculture: Fertile valleys in Kosovo and Thrace provided grain, wine, and livestock for Roman markets. Infrastructure: Roman roads (Via Militaris, Via Egnatia) linked the Balkans to the wider empire, facilitating trade and troop movement. 🌍 Cultural & Political Influence Romanization: Cities like Ulpiana, Naissus (modern Niš), and Sirmium became centers of Roman law, architecture, and administration. Latin inscriptions and Roman civic institutions penetrated deeply. Imperial leadership: Several emperors hailed from the Balkans (e.g., Aurelian, Diocletian, Constantine), showing the region’s integration into imperial politics. Religious transformation: The Balkans played a key role in the spread of Christianity. Constantine’s Edict of Milan (313 CE) was issued after his victory at Naissus, underscoring the region’s importance in Rome’s religious shift. Challenges Constant invasions: Despite its wealth, the Balkans were vulnerable to barbarian incursions, which strained Rome’s defenses. Population shifts: Ancient DNA studies show successive migrations (Anatolian, Gothic, Slavic) reshaped Balkan demographics, complicating Roman control. Environmental impact: Heavy mining and deforestation altered landscapes, leaving long-term scars. In essence, the Balkans were not just Rome’s industrial heartland but also its military shield, cultural incubator, and political powerhouse. Their soldiers, emperors, and resources shaped the empire’s resilience and transformation.

An Egyptian ship, described as a “pleasure barge” (known as a thalamagos), has been unearthed in a harbor near Alexandria, Egypt. Based on the graffiti found on the timbers, the ship has been dated to the first century AD. Archaeologists, according to the article, believe that the ship was powered solely by oars and required more than 20 rowers. 🛶 Key Points Discovery site: Near the sunken island of Antirhodos in Alexandria’s Portus Magnus, close to the Temple of Isis. Vessel type: A thalamagos—a luxurious pleasure barge described in classical sources but never before recovered archaeologically. Dimensions: About 35 meters long, 7 meters wide; flat-bottomed hull with rounded stern, designed for calm waterways rather than open sea. Construction: Locally built in Alexandria; Greek graffiti on the central carling dates it to the first half of the 1st century CE. Function: Likely used for festivals, leisure, and religious ceremonies. Possible connection to the navigium Isidis (annual Isis procession reenacting the goddess’s solar voyage). Catastrophic sinking likely occurred around CE 50 due to earthquakes and tidal waves that damaged parts of Alexandria’s shoreline. Cultural parallels: Similar vessels appear in art (e.g., the Nile mosaic of Palestrina), but this wreck is much larger. Evokes Ptolemaic floating palaces, including Cleopatra VII’s famed barges. Conservation: According to UNESCO guidelines, the wreck will stay on the seabed; ongoing excavations continue to uncover details of daily life and rituals in Roman Alexandria. 📚 Additional Context Historical sources: Strabo (early 1st century CE) described cabin-boats used in Alexandria for festivals and leisure. The graffiti dating aligns with his accounts. Religious significance: The proximity to the Temple of Isis suggests ritual use. The Navigium Isidis was a major festival celebrating Isis’s role as a cosmic navigator, linking Nile voyages to solar myth. Comparative finds: While fragments of ceremonial boats have been found in Egypt (e.g., Khufu’s solar barge at Giza), this is the first large-scale recovery of a Roman-era Alexandrian pleasure vessel. Political resonance: Pleasure barges were symbols of dynastic spectacle. Cleopatra’s famed barge, described by Plutarch, was a floating palace meant to awe Roman envoys. This wreck underscores the continuity of spectacle into the Roman period. Archaeological method: The wreck was documented using 3D photogrammetry, enabling virtual reconstructions without removing timbers from the seabed (see image below). ⚠️ Risks & Challenges Preservation: Wood remains fragile underwater; disturbance could accelerate decay. Interpretive caution: While linked to Cleopatra’s harbor, the vessel dates slightly later (early Roman period), so direct association with her reign is unlikely. Tourism versus conservation: Public fascination may pressure authorities to raise the wreck, but UNESCO guidelines emphasize in situ preservation. https://archaeologymag.com/2025/12/egyptian-pleasure-barge-unearthed-in-alexandria/ https://www.discovermagazine.com/a-2-000-year-old-pleasure-barge-resurfaces-in-cleopatra-s-harbor-telling-us-of-life-in-roman-egypt-48377

A Roman tomb from the third or fourth century AD was found in Budapest, Hungary. Because the tomb was undisturbed, it may shed light on Roman provincial life. Archaeologists in Budapest uncovered a pristine 1,700-year-old Roman sarcophagus in September 2025, containing the skeleton of a young woman and dozens of untouched grave goods, offering a rare glimpse into life and death on the empire’s frontier. 🏺 Key Details of the Discovery Location: Óbuda district of Budapest, once part of Aquincum, a Roman frontier town in the province of Pannonia. Date of Find: September 30, 2025, during large-scale urban excavations. Condition: The coffin was hermetically sealed with molten lead and metal clamps, preventing looting or disturbance for 1,700 years. Contents: A complete skeleton of a young woman. Dozens of artifacts, including jewelry, personal items, and grave goods. The items suggest that she was of a higher social status within Roman society. 🔎 Significance Rare intact burial: Most Roman tombs have been looted or disturbed; this one remained untouched. Cultural insight: The artifacts illuminate Roman funerary practices, social hierarchy, and daily life in Aquincum during the 3rd–4th centuries CE. Archaeological importance: Provides direct evidence of Roman presence in Hungary, reinforcing Aquincum’s role as a significant settlement along the Danube frontier. ⚖️ Risks & Challenges Preservation: Excavators must carefully conserve organic remains and delicate artifacts. Interpretation: Determining the woman’s exact identity and social role requires cautious analysis; artifacts can be symbolic rather than literal indicators of status. Curatorial framing: Museums must balance public fascination with scholarly accuracy, avoiding sensationalism while presenting the find’s true significance. 📌 Summary This find is extraordinary because it offers a pristine archaeological site—a sealed Roman sarcophagus with human remains and grave goods that have remained untouched for nearly two thousand years. It serves as both a scientific treasure and a cultural window into frontier life during the Roman Empire. Archaeologists Lift the Lid on a 1,700-Year-Old Roman Sarcophagus, Beneath Budapest - The National Herald 1,700-year-old Roman sarcophagus unearthed, revealing treasures buried with woman of "higher social status" - CBS News

A clean-shaven Jesus has been discovered in a third century AD fresco in Iznik, Turkey, in northwestern Turkey. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/archaeology/iznik-turkey-pope-caves-jesus-b2883466.html

Neatly aligned ceramic roof tiles found at a recent excavation in Pompeii. Piles of pre-mixed quicklime and volcanic ash were also discovered at the site. Roman concrete is known for its durability. There have already been several posts about its unusual features (see below). Here is additional support for the idea that the stronger Roman concrete resulted from the “hot-mixing” process (described by Caesar novus in an earlier post) rather than the method using slaked lime, as previously believed. The Pompeii excavation not only confirmed the Romans’ use of hot-mixing with quicklime to create self-healing concrete, but also uncovered the variety of volcanic materials they used, providing unmatched clarity on their construction technology. This evidence supports the idea that Roman builders purposefully designed concrete to last for centuries, challenging Vitruvius’s traditional account of lime slaking. 🔑 Key Additions from MIT Research Direct Evidence of Hot-Mixing: Researchers examining Pompeii discovered intact quicklime fragments mixed with volcanic ash in raw material piles. This provides the strongest proof to date that Romans used hot-mixing instead of slaked lime, as described by Vitruvius. Volcanic Ash Diversity: The team identified a wide variety of reactive minerals, including pumice particles, which chemically interacted with pore solutions over time. These reactions created new mineral deposits that further strengthened the concrete. Self-Healing Over Centuries: The lime clasts preserved in hot-mixed concrete can redissolve when cracks form, filling fissures with new calcium carbonate. Combined with volcanic reactions, this creates a dynamic, regenerative system in Roman concrete that withstands earthquakes, seawater, and volcanic damage. Vitruvius Reconsidered: While Vitruvius described slaking lime with water, isotope studies at Pompeii showed carbonation reactions consistent with hot-mixing. Scholars now suggest Vitruvius may have been misinterpreted, as he also mentioned latent heat during mixing. MIT’s Admir Masic emphasizes that the goal is not to copy Roman concrete wholesale, but to translate its regenerative principles into modern sustainable materials. His startup, DMAT, is already working on concretes inspired by these findings. ⚖️ Implications for Today Engineering Lessons: Roman concrete demonstrates how dynamic mineral systems can extend the service life of infrastructure well beyond that of Portland cement. Sustainability Potential: Adapting hot-mixing principles could reduce the carbon footprint of cement production while improving durability. Archaeological Significance: Pompeii’s preserved construction site acted as a time capsule, showing Roman builders mid-process, with tools and raw materials frozen in place. In essence, the Pompeii discovery, reinforced by MIT’s analysis, shows that Roman builders intentionally used hot-mixing with quicklime and diverse volcanic ash to create concrete that could regenerate itself for thousands of years. This overturns long-held assumptions from Vitruvius and offers a blueprint for more sustainable modern construction. Here is a comparison of the slaked lime technique (reported by Vitruvius) for concrete production and the "hot-mixing" technique (supported by the archaeological evidence😞 🏛 Roman Concrete: Slaked Lime vs. Hot Mixing Slaked Lime (Traditional Method): Produced by adding water to quicklime (calcium oxide), creating calcium hydroxide paste. This process is gentler, avoids extreme heat, and was long thought to be the standard Roman approach (as described by Vitruvius). Result: a smoother binder, but less chemically reactive over time. Once set, it loses much of its ability to interact with water or heal cracks. Hot Mixing (Pompeii Evidence): Romans sometimes skipped slaking and instead mixed quicklime directly with volcanic ash and water. This triggered exothermic reactions at very high temperatures, embedding lime clasts (unreacted quicklime fragments) throughout the concrete. Result: these clasts remained chemically “alive.” When cracks formed centuries later, water infiltrated and reactivated the lime, producing new calcium carbonate that sealed fissures. In effect, hot-mixed concrete was self-healing, unlike slaked lime concrete. 🔑 Why This Matters Vitruvius vs. Archaeology: Vitruvius’s text emphasizes slaking, but Pompeii’s unfinished walls and raw material piles show Romans pragmatically used hot mixing for durability. Engineering Insight: Slaked lime provided stability in the short term, but hot-mixing created a dynamic, regenerative system that explains why aqueducts, harbors, and walls still stand. Modern lesson: Portland cement is similar to slaked lime in its inertness after setting. Roman hot-mixing provides a model for durable, sustainable concrete that can self-repair. Summary: While Vitruvius regarded slaked lime as a "safe" method, Pompeii reveals that Roman builders often preferred hot mixing—a more dangerous, heat-intensive technique that boosted their concrete's famous self-healing qualities. Note: Caesar novus had mentioned this research earlier and it is supported by archaeological research (see post below): https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/romans-hot-recipe-for-self-healing-concrete-unravelled-in-pompeii/4022682.article https://cee.mit.edu/pompeii-offers-insights-into-ancient-roman-building-technology/ https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.add1602