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There have been previous posts about thermopolia—fast-food counters in Ancient Rome, found in excavations of Pompeii (see below). A thermopolium (plural thermopolia) was a street‑front food shop where customers could buy hot food and drink. The name derives from Greek: thermos = hot poleo = to sell They catered especially to residents of insulae (apartment blocks) who lacked kitchens and relied on street food for daily meals. Because of this association with the lower and middle classes, elite Romans sometimes looked down on them. Here is a good video summarizing the thermopolia:

So, why was Boethius killed? First, the background: The Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and several related Germanic peoples were converted to Arian Christianity through missionary efforts before or during their settlement in the Roman world. Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths and an Arian, generally practiced religious tolerance toward his Nicene Catholic Roman subjects during the early and middle periods of his rule. He maintained traditional Roman administrative structures and worked with Catholic elites, including Boethius and his father-in-law Symmachus. Theodoric was broadly tolerant for most of his reign By the 520s, however, relations between Theodoric (an Arian Christian) and the Eastern Roman Empire (ruled by the Nicene emperor Justin I) deteriorated sharply. So why was Boethius (and later Symmachus) targeted? Boethius defended a senator accused of conspiring with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Boethius had denounced corruption among the Gothic officials. As prominent Catholics in an Arian king’s court, they were politically vulnerable. For many years, Boethius and Symmachus served as Roman senators and prominent late Roman aristocrats who collaborated closely with Theodoric. Despite their loyalty, they remained Nicene Christians with strong ties to Constantinople, which made them appear suspicious during increasing tensions with the Eastern Empire. As Theodoric became more paranoid, he started to see the senatorial class as possible traitors. In this atmosphere, the arrests of Boethius and Symmachus marked the end of the longstanding cooperation between Goths and Romans.

Boethius was the late Roman statesman and philosopher who bridged the classical and medieval worlds. Below are brief videos describing his life.: Boethius (c. 480–524 CE) was a Roman statesman, scholar, and Christian philosopher whose life spanned the collapse of the classical world and the emergence of the medieval intellectual tradition. Educated in Latin and Greek, he rose to high office under the Ostrogothic king Theodoric, serving as consul and later as magister officiorum. His political downfall followed his defense of a fellow senator against charges of treason; he was imprisoned and eventually executed in Pavia. While awaiting death, Boethius wrote “The Consolation of Philosophy,” a dialogue between himself and Lady Philosophy that explores fortune, suffering, and the pursuit of the highest good. The work became one of the Middle Ages’ most influential books. Beyond this masterpiece, Boethius played a key role in transmitting Greek learning to the Latin West: he translated and commented on Aristotle, Porphyry, and Nicomachus, and wrote on logic, music, arithmetic, and theology.

This is the latest find at Roman necropolis in Vinkovci, Croatia (see post below). It probably dates to the 2nd-3rd centuries AD, like previous graves at the site. Archaeologists excavating the site of the future city market in Vinkovci, eastern Croatia, uncovered an exceptionally rare intact Roman brick-built grave—only the second unlooted grave found among more than 200 excavated in the area. The burial contained the remains of a 40–45‑year‑old man, preserved well enough to allow detailed analysis. Only two small items were found with him: an iron object near the right foot and a bronze fragment on the right shoulder. The site lies within the necropolis of ancient Cibalae, a major Roman settlement known for its strategic location, industrial activity, and its distinction as the birthplace of emperors Valentinian I and Valens. Excavations of other graves at the site have yielded typical Roman-period objects such as glass unguentaria and fibulae. https://www.croatiaweek.com/rare-intact-roman-grave-vinkovci-cibalae-croatia/#google_vignette

There was a previous post on the famous Roman Lycurgus Cup (see below). This beautiful glass vessel appears green in reflected light and deep red in transmitted light due to embedded silver and gold nanoparticles Here is some of the research: Researchers were able to 3D‑print a cup that changes color, similar to the ancient Lycurgus Cup. It isn’t a perfect match, partly because they don’t have exact measurements of the original cup’s colors, but it behaves the same way—one color when light shines on it, another when light shines through it. The researchers demonstrated that tiny metal particles can be used to create colors without dyes, and that these colors remain stable even after 3D printing. This could lead to new kinds of materials that change their appearance depending on the lighting or the viewing angle. The Lycurgus Cup gets its name from the artwork carved into the glass, which depicts the myth of King Lycurgus, a violent Thracian ruler who attacked the god Dionysus and was punished by being trapped in a vine. https://thedebrief.org/this-ancient-roman-artifacts-weird-properties-point-to-evidence-of-1600-year-old-nanotechnology-scientists-say/ https://www.beilstein-journals.org/bjnano/articles/11/2

Roman anqueduct engineering was very advanced. There was a previous post about the use of “inverted siphons” to push water uphill (see below). Roman engineers came up with clever ways to move water across uneven terrains. One of their smartest inventions was the inverted siphon—a pressurized pipe system that let aqueducts cross deep valleys without needing huge, sky‑high bridges. It’s not a siphon the way we use the word today. Instead of using air pressure, it works like a sealed pipe that uses gravity and water pressure. Water drops from the aqueduct into a small tank (castellum), then rushes downhill through pipes into the valley, where the pressure becomes strong enough to push the water back up the far side so it can rejoin the aqueduct and keep flowing across uneven ground. Here is a short video that also discusses the use of inverted siphons.

Here’s a short video on a Roman hypocaust heating system, similar to the one mentioned in the video:

Renovation work at Écija’s city hall in Spain unexpectedly revealed a well‑preserved strip of Roman mosaic and part of a hypocaust heating system. The finding gives new evidence of a high‑status Roman house once occupying the site. In the Roman period, Écija was originally known as Astigi. During the civil war it supported Julius Caesar at the Battle of Munda, and in return he ordered its fortification and refounded it as a Julian colony—likely Colonia Iulia Firma Astigitana. Under Octavian, the future emperor Augustus, the colony was further developed according to Caesar’s plans, and its official name became Colonia Iulia Augusta Firma Astigitana. According to Pliny the Elder and Pomponius Mela, writing in the first century AD, the city rivaled both Corduba (Córdoba) and Hispalis (Seville) in importance. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2026/05/excavations-uncover-roman-remains-in-ecija/157960

This article offers a more detailed examination of a previous post on the discovery and excavation of a Roman horse cemetery in Cannstatt, Germany, containing the remains of 109 horses. This finding is interpreted as evidence of a Roman military unit stationed on the frontier. Cannstatt’s importance lies in its role as a major Roman military and logistical hub on the Upper Germanic frontier, located at a strategic crossing of the Neckar River where cavalry, supply transport, and frontier defense converged. The discovery of the 109‑horse Roman military cemetery underscores Cannstatt’s function as a cavalry garrison center. The cemetery is associated with a Roman fort or cavalry outpost, likely dating to the 2nd–3rd centuries AD, when cavalry forces were heavily deployed along the frontier. The horses belonged to an ala (cavalry regiment) or an equites cohort. The Cannstatt horses were small, tough, and highly functional cavalry mounts, standing 130–140 cm (51–55 in) tall — exactly the type of horse the Roman army preferred for mobility and endurance on the Germanic frontier. This size would be considered a large pony or small horse today, but in the Roman period, it was standard cavalry size. (There had been earlier posts about Roman horses being smaller than modern horses. See picture below of Marcus Aurelius with a relatively small horse.) Preliminary isotope results suggest that many horses were not locally bred, supporting the idea that Roman cavalry units imported or transferred horses between provinces. https://the-past.com/feature/109-roman-mounts-excavating-a-military-horse-cemetery/

There was a previous post about Roman gypsum burials before (see post below). Researchers from the University of York identified traces of the rare Tyrian purple dye, sometimes worth more than gold, in two infant gypsum‑encased burials—one in a stone coffin with two adults and another in a lead coffin—where the liquid gypsum preserved imprints of the textiles. The findings challenge long‑held assumptions that Romans did not mourn infants. This discovery, instead, demonstrates that families expressed grief and provided high‑status funerary treatment for their youngest children. The two young infants were buried in the late third-fourth century AD, wrapped in extremely costly Tyrian purple cloth—normally reserved for emperors and the highest Roman elites—revealing both the extraordinary status of their families and the care invested in some infant burials. The purple dye is seen above in the burial clothe. Below is a microscopic image of the dye in the clothe. The purple‑cloth infant burials prove that elite Roman families in York mourned their infants with great care and attention. This revealed emotional attachment to infants despite the “Roman traditions and early legal codes [that] forbade parents from publicly mourning their babies in a period when three out of ten infants did not survive their first year.” https://www.heritagedaily.com/2026/05/imperial-purple-cloth-discovered-in-roman-infant-burials-in-york/157951 https://www.labrujulaverde.com/en/2026/04/two-roman-babies-were-buried-in-york-with-imperial-purple-and-gold-a-luxury-reserved-for-emperors/ https://phys.org/news/2026-04-rare-tyrian-purple-reveals-elite.html

This article challenges the belief that life on the Roman frontier of Southern Germany collapsed with the collapse of the Roman Empire The articles below describe life on the Roman frontier (AD 400-700) through the study of the DNA from 258 individuals. These individuals were demographically mixed, socially stable, surprisingly long‑lived, and genetically converging toward modern Central Europeans by the early 7th century. Interesting findings: Nearly 25% of children lost at least one parent by age 10 but children had at least one living grandparent at birth—suggesting extended family support networks. After the fall of Rome (AD 476) Life expectancy surprisingly rose: Men: ~43.3 years and Women: ~39.8 years. The rise in life expectancy is attributed to reduced violent conflict compared to the late Roman military frontier. The lower female life expectancy likely reflects childbirth risks. Surprisingly, the end of Roman administration did not produce demographic collapse. Instead, it triggered population growth, intermarriage, and longer lifespans. The late Roman decline is attributed to: Frontier warfare and raids High male mortality among soldiers and militia Food insecurity during the 3rd- 5th century crises Population displacement Disease exposure in dense military settlements These pressures eased once the Roman state withdrew and the region transitioned to agrarian village life. After AD 476, during the early medieval rural phase (roughly AD 500-650), life expectancy increased, reflecting: Less violence More stable food production Multi-generation households Lower male mortality from military service Overall, the frontier did not collapse into chaos but transformed into a thriving, integrated rural society. https://archaeology.org/news/2026/04/30/skeleton-study-reveals-life-on-the-frontier-after-the-fall-of-rome/ https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-026-10437-3#Fig1

This is the famous equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. Its background history is fascinating. The statue was well-preserved because the medieval elite believed it depicted Constantine, the first Christian emperor. Back then, pagan and non-Christian bronzes were often melted down, so this statue was spared because people believed it portrayed the Christian-friendly Constantine. Once scholars began systematically studying Roman portraiture in the Renaissance and early modern period, they compared: Facial features, beard styles, hair patterns, physiognomy, and imperial iconography all contribute to a person's unique appearance and expression. The face closely resembles well-known portraits of Marcus Aurelius on coins and busts (see below), particularly the philosopher’s distinctive beard, a key feature of his iconic image. The composition of the horse and rider aligns with Marcus Aurelius’s imperial message. The horse’s raised foreleg signifies strength and vitality. The emperor is depicted unarmored, symbolizing his role as a proponent of peace and reflecting his Stoic philosophy. Marcus Aurelius cultivated an image of a philosopher-king, a ruler who valued peace yet accepted war as a duty. This portrayal is distinct from that of other Roman emperors. The statue of Marcus Aurelius was thus preserved because of mistaken identity.

Interesting question. My reading of this story doesn’t provide a definitive identity for this bust. It is only a guess, since there is no ancient inscription or reference. In my first post, I noted that it was only speculated that the bust was of Sextus Pompey (son of Pompey the Great 67-35 BCE) or Drusus Germanicus (38-9 BCE). Stylistically, at least, it resembles similar busts from the early 1st century AD, likely from the Julian-Claudian period: Here is someone’s opinion (based on stylistic features): “The bust is dated to the early 1st century CE because it exhibits all the hallmarks of the Julio‑Claudian portrait style: short, softly carved waves of hair, smooth facial planes with a hint of realism, and uncarved eyes without drilled pupils. These features place it before the deep‑drilled textures and more expressive faces that appear later in the Flavian and Antonine periods. Its clean, undecorated bust truncation and the restrained, almost Augustan sense of idealization point to a private portrait rather than an emperor. Taken together, the hair, the eyes, the toolwork, and the overall “calm classicism” make specialists confident it belongs to the reign of Tiberius, roughly 10 BCE–40 CE. The bust is dated to the early 1st century CE because it shows all the hallmarks of Julio‑Claudian portrait style: short, softly carved waves of hair, smooth facial planes with just a hint of realism, and uncarved eyes without drilled pupils. Those features place it before the deep‑drilled textures and more expressive faces that appear later in the Flavian and Antonine periods. The clean, undecorated bust truncation and the restrained, almost Augustan sense of idealization point to a private portrait rather than an emperor. Taken together, the hair, eyes, toolwork, and overall “calm classicism” make specialists confident it dates to the reign of Tiberius, roughly 10 BCE–40 CE.“ Well, I don’t know if I fully agree with the paragraphs above. In answer to your question, I think it is still anyone’s guess. There is no associated inscription or findspot context. As a note, some busts are identified by numismatic evidence and share similar features. In this case, such evidence is lacking, making it unlikely that the identity of this bust is a member of the ruling elite.

Here’s a recent video on the marble head:

There have been surprisingly few previous posts about Rome in modern-day Scotland (see below). Here are short videos on Agricola’s defeat of the Caledonians:

A recent study suggests how ships were possibly waterproofed in Ancient Rome. A molecular study of the Ilovik–Paržine Roman shipwreck off the coast of Croatia shows that its hull was waterproofed and repeatedly repaired using pine‑tar pitch and a pine‑tar–beeswax mixture (zopissa), with pollen trapped in these coatings revealing 4–5 distinct recoating events carried out at different Adriatic and Mediterranean locations. It gives rare insight into ancient shipbuilding traditions and long‑distance maintenance practices. Two distinct waterproofing materials were used: -Pure pine tar (pitch) — the primary coating across most samples. -Pine tar mixed with beeswax (zopissa) — a flexible, hot‑applied adhesive known from Greek shipbuilding. This is the first molecular analysis to document this combination on this vessel. Pitch naturally traps pollen, allowing researchers to identify vegetation signatures. The pollen recovered points to a mosaic of Mediterranean and Adriatic environments—dense stands of holly oak and pine, broad stretches of coastal scrub rich in olive and hazel, and the mixed vegetation of river‑influenced valleys. These signatures point to multiple geographic sources, implying the ship was repaired in different Adriatic regions during its working life. https://eandt.theiet.org/2026/04/24/roman-shipwreck-repaired-unexpected-materials-molecular-analysis-reveals

Here is a recent book about the rise of Christianity by Alice Roberts. I have not read the book, but here are a few comments about this potentially interesting book: “Domination is widely regarded as engaging, well-written, and insightful, especially for readers interested in archaeology and the transformation of the Roman world. Its biggest strengths are narrative clarity and material-culture analysis. Its biggest weaknesses stem from its humanist framing, occasional polemical tone, and limited scholarly depth. Roberts approaches the rise of Christianity like a scientist: tracing ecclesiastical centers, material culture, and linguistic clues to reconstruct how Christianity spread across the former Roman world. This method is praised as fresh and rigorous. Some reviewers note that Roberts writes beautifully about physical objects—lamps, buildings, bells—and how they reveal cultural change. This object-centered storytelling is considered one of the book’s standout strengths. Roberts avoids treating Christianity as a monolithic entity, instead emphasizing local actors, parishes, and elite families who shaped its spread. Roberts’ thesis is that Christianity dominated the Roman world because it: -Won over the elite, not the masses. [A point I disagree with.] Christianity spread upward—into the Roman elite—not downward Roberts challenges the traditional narrative that Christianity grew mainly among the poor or marginalized. Instead, she argues that its early adopters were disproportionately urban, educated, and wealthy Romans, including soldiers and administrators. This gave the movement access to influence, patronage, and political protection. This is a major theme: Christianity succeeded because it penetrated the Empire’s power structures early, not because it was inherently more compelling than other religions. -Christianity benefited from imperial endorsement at key moments. -Christianity became an economic powerhouse. Roberts emphasizes that the Church quickly developed: moneymaking enterprises charitable distribution systems control over education and healthcare. According to Roberts, wealthy families shifted their civic giving from cities to churches, Christianity absorbed the social-welfare functions that once defined Roman civic life. This institutional strength helped it outcompete pagan cults. -Christianity replaced the Empire’s civic functions as Rome declined: Christianity adopted Roman provincial divisions, inherited bureaucratic structures, and filled the vacuum left by collapsing civic institutions -Used material culture, organization, and power—not theology—to expand.” I have not read this book, but it did get my attention. I might find this book especially interesting because it uses material culture (mosaics, coins, inscriptions, symbols, burial practices, etc.) as evidence of Christianity’s expansion. https://independentaustralia.net/life/art-display/book-review-domination--the-fall-of-the-roman-empire-and-the-rise-of-christianity,20966 https://www.indiependent.co.uk/book-review-domination-alice-roberts/

A Roman bronze and enamel vessel dating to the 2nd century AD has been discovered in Berlanga de Duero, Soria, Spain. It is the first known vessel to list the eastern Hadrian’s Wall forts—Cilurnum, Onno, Vindobala, and Condercum—thereby expanding the geographic range documented for this artifact type (one of five known). The cup was found nearly 2,000 km (1200 miles) from the Wall, consistent with a soldier bringing home a personal memento or a service award. Archaeologists believe the cup belonged to a Celtiberian auxiliary soldier who served at Hadrian’s Wall and later returned home. Units from central Spain, such as Cohors I Celtiberorum, are known to have served in Britain during the 2nd century. Lead‑isotope and XRF analyses indicate the metal likely came from British ore sources (Wales or northern England), confirming manufacture near the Wall. The enamel colors—red, green, blue, turquoise—match Roman decorative techniques of the period. https://arkeonews.net/rare-2000-year-old-hadrians-wall-cup-discovered-in-spain-one-of-only-five-known/ https://www.ipp.csic.es/es/article/estudio-identifica-copa-romana-hallada-soria-souvenir-siglo-ii-procedente-muro-adriano

Here’s another (very readable) article on the research: https://phys.org/news/2026-04-ancient-roman-toilets-crusted-expose.html

A charred fragment of Roman bread—likely the result of an everyday kitchen mishap—has been uncovered near Zurich, Switzerland. Like the carbonized loaves preserved at Pompeii, this piece survived because intense heat transformed its organic material into a stable, charcoal‑like form. The bread was found during construction near the Roman legionary base at Vindonissa, and its context suggests a date in the early 1st century AD, when the first troop camp was established in the region. 2,000-year-old Roman bread discovered under construction site | Popular Science Important finds in Vindonissa: Traces of the first troop camp - Canton of Aargau

Archeologists in Egypt have found a Roman-era mummy containing a papyrus fragment of Homer’s Iliad. This was the first time a Greek literary text has been discovered that had been deliberately placed inside a mummy. The mummy dates from the 4th century AD. Papyrus was used inside mummies because, in Roman‑era Egypt, papyrus bundles were believed to offer protection in the afterlife — but the texts were almost always magical or ritual, not literary. Researchers from the Oxyrhynchus mission explain that papyri were placed in the chest or abdomen because they were thought to protect the deceased during the journey to the afterlife. This parallels older Egyptian traditions where amulets, spells, and ritual texts safeguarded the dead. https://web.ub.edu/en/web/actualitat/w/oxyrhynchus-iliad-homer https://phys.org/news/2026-04-archaeological-mission-oxyrhynchus-homer-iliad.html

A pre-Columbian Bolivian mummy was found to contain Streptococcus pyogenes, the bacteria that cause strep throat. It proves that the infection was already present in the Americas before European contact. Interestingly, 4000-year-old European samples have also shown the infection. Although never found in Roman DNA, Galen, Celsus, and other Roman physicians describe an erysipelas-like infection, usually caused by Streptococcus. The sharply demarcated redness and rapidly spreading swelling associated with fever that characterized erysipelas is described by Galen and other ancient physicians (pictured below): Streptococcus was one of the known infections to impact both the Romans and the Americas. Many virulent infections are thought to be confined to Europe rather than the pre-Columbian Americas: smallpox, measles, influenza, typhus, etc. The standard epidemiological narrative holds that the New World lacked epidemic-scale pathogens because it lacked the population density and animal domestication that drove the evolution of Old World diseases. But the Eurac study shows S. pyogenes, a globally distributed, human-to-human pathogen capable of causing scarlet fever, toxic shock, and invasive infections, was already circulating in Indigenous South American populations between AD 1283-1383. This means at least one “Old World‑type” pathogen did not arrive with Europeans. The article shows that the Old World–New World disease divide was real but not absolute. At least one major pathogen long assumed to be European was already present in the Americas centuries before contact, revealing a more entangled and ancient global disease history than previously believed. https://www.eurac.edu/en/press/the-bacterium-responsible-for-scarlet-fever-was-not-introduced-to-the-americas-by https://archaeology.org/news/2026/04/21/scarlet-fever-bacterium-detected-in-700-year-old-tooth/

Below is a recent short video on wound care following a battle injury. The subject of honey for wound healing has been discussed before (see post) What Happens When A Roman Soldier Gets Hurt A much older video on Roman battle wound care after trauma: Description of fresco pictured above: The fresco, discovered at Pompeii in the Casa di Sirico (VII 1, 25), depicts the healing episode from Virgil's Aeneid (Book XII, lines 398 ff. and 411 ff.). Aeneas, still in his armor and attended by the tearful young Ascanius, is treated by the healer Iapyx, who kneels before him and struggles with forceps to extract the arrowhead embedded in Aeneas's thigh. At this moment, his mother, Aphrodite (Venus), descends in flight, bearing in her left hand a vial of the herbal remedy, gathered from the slopes of Mount Ida in Crete, that Virgil describes as the divine medicine enabling her son's miraculous recovery.

Researchers have determined that ancient Romans suffered from various infections after studying the residue of ancient Roman chamber pots along the lower Danube in modern-day Bulgaria. Along with tapeworm eggs, the researchers found evidence of Entamoeba histolytica and Cryptosporidium. The pots date from the 2nd and 4th centuries AD. The finding of Cryptosporidium is among the earliest in Europe. Cryptosporidium is unusual in the Roman chamber-pot findings because protozoan parasites (like Cryptosporidium and Entamoeba) almost never survive in archaeological contexts, and Cryptosporidium oocysts are especially tiny, fragile, and easily destroyed. Finding them at all is extremely rare in paleoparasitology. Cryptosporidium is unusual in the Roman chamber-pot findings because: Its oocysts are too small for standard recovery methods They rarely preserve in archaeological sediments European sites almost always test negative Protozoan paleoparasitology is far less successful than helminth detection Any confirmed detection would be one of the rarest protozoan finds in Roman archaeology Cryptosporidium oocysts: are shed in low numbers compared to helminths are susceptible to desiccation, pH changes, and mineralization lack the thick chitinous shells that protect helminth eggs for millennia Helminth eggs (whipworm, roundworm, tapeworm) have thick, durable shells and survive thousands of years. Protozoa like Cryptosporidium have thin-walled, delicate oocysts that: degrade rapidly in soil are chemically unstable are easily mistaken for fungal spores or debris lack distinctive morphology under light microscopy This is why the paleoparasitological record of Cryptosporidium is described as "elusive" and extremely sparse. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2026/04/roman-chamber-pots-provide-new-evidence-of-intestinal-parasites/157814#google_vignette https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10622768/

A Roman marble head from Smyrna has been repatriated from a Denver Art museum after being removed illegally. It is dated from the Theodosian period of the 5th century AD. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkiye/turkiye-secures-return-of-ancient-smyrna-artifact-from-us-museum/3906049