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Rome faced numerous epidemics and localized outbreaks, such as malaria, intestinal parasites, localized fevers, and gastrointestinal diseases. Among the most recognized "plagues" of the ancient world, four stand out: 1. Plague of Athens (430-426 BCE) 2. Antonine Plague (AD 165-180) 3. Cyprian Plague (AD 249-270) 4. Justinian Plague (AD 541-549) The Cyprian Plague is particularly unique among these four pandemics. The Plague of Athens, which is thought to have contributed to the death of Pericles, is believed to have been caused by typhoid fever, transmitted through contaminated water and food. While scavenger animals reportedly died during this outbreak, it was likely due to high levels of endotoxin found in human victims. The cause of the Antonine Plague is believed to be smallpox, measles, or another infection. The Justinian Plague was caused by the “bubonic plague” virus (pictured below), Yersinia pestis (confirmed by ancient DNA). It is transmitted by fleas, often carried by rats. https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/justinianic-plague-was-nothing-like-flu-and-may-have-hit-england-before-constantinople In contrast, the Cyprian Plague stands out as the most biologically puzzling of the four. Its symptoms and transmission patterns do not align with any known ancient pathogens. Contemporary accounts describe catastrophic gastrointestinal bleeding, vomiting, conjunctival hemorrhage, and progressive limb necrosis—symptoms that resemble viral hemorrhagic fevers more than those of smallpox or measles. The picture above is a patient with Ebola, showing the hemorrhagic necrosis found in the disease. While its exact cause remains unknown, the Cyprian Plague’s symptoms are consistent with an early filovirus resembling Ebola. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-archaeology/article/plague-of-cyprian-a-revised-view-of-the-origin-and-spread-of-a-3rdc-ce-pandemic/4DD870D473D3DDB1DF0328CE2C7E3280

Harry Sidebottom has written an interesting book about the lives of gladiators (see the picture above). Although I haven't read the book, it touches on the gladiators' diet. There have been several previous posts on that subject (see below). One staple of the gladiators' diet was sagina, a thick, high-calorie porridge or mash that played a key role in their nutrition. Barley was a core ingredient in this meal, so common among gladiators that they were nicknamed hordearii, or "barley eaters." Sagina may also have included grains (oats, wheat, millet), vegetables and aromatics (cabbage, onions, garlic, fennel seeds), as well as fruits, nuts, dairy, oil, and honey. Notably, gladiators probably ate very little meat, which makes their high-calorie, grain-based diet even more impressive in supporting their strength and resilience. There was also an ash drink supplement made by mixing plant ash with water. It was rich in calcium and minerals. It was possibly consumed after training or fights. Isotopic analysis of gladiator bones showed high strontium levels, consistent with plant ash consumption. Plant ash is the mineral-rich residue of burned wood or herbs. This is mixed with water and possibly vinegar. High strontium bone levels are consistent with a primarily vegetarian diet. Meat-derived calcium suppresses the absorption of strontium (by both the intestine and the bones), thus, a lower strontium level in a more meat-rich diet. https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-general/new-evidence-suggests-gladiators-consumed-plant-ash-bone-strength-002262 https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2014/10/27/357903336/gladiator-gatorade-ancient-athletes-also-had-a-recovery-drink https://www.sciencealert.com/roman-gladiators-drank-a-post-workout-drink-made-from-ash The gladiators were intentionally overfed to keep them bulky and padded. They needed a thicker layer of fat to protect against cut and slash injuries from the arena. Reviews of the book: https://the-past.com/review/books/those-who-are-about-to-die-a-day-in-the-life-of-a-roman-gladiator/ https://open.substack.com/pub/donaldrobertson/p/a-day-in-the-life-of-a-roman-gladiator?r=k9yfw&utm_medium=ios https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/harry-sidebottom-on-gladiators-rome-and-those-who-are/id1631182936?i=1000731125285

This article was already highlighted in the UNRV newsletter. It reminded me about previous discussions (see post below). It is a good example of sensory archaeology, the branch of archaeology that studies how people in the past experienced the world through their senses (smell, sound, touch, taste, and sight) rather than focusing on objects, architecture, and objects. The article also shows how small residue samples can reveal global economic connections and domestic religious behavior. Pompeii Incense Study Researchers analyzed 2,000-year-old ash residues preserved inside two Roman incense burners from Pompeii and a nearby villa. Techniques like GC-MS and phytolith analysis allowed researchers to identify burned substances and confirm they were heated intentionally. What the ash contained was determined by advanced biomolecular and microscopic techniques: • Local plant materials (wood, grasses, possibly laurel or fruit trees) Exotic aromatic resins from the Burseraceae family-plants native to tropical Africa or Asia and related to frankincense/ elemi Chemical traces of grape products, likely wine, consistent with ritual libations Provides the first direct physical evidence of what Romans actually burned in household religious rituals. Confirms that imported incense was used not only by elites but in ordinary domestic shrines (lararia). Shows that ritual practice involved intentional heating/ burning, verified through biomolecular and microscopic analysis. Implications for global trade The presence of African/Asian resins in ordinary households shows: Pompeii was deeply connected to long-distance trade networks Imported luxury goods were accessible even to non-elite residents Trade routes likely linked India, Arabia, sub-Saharan Africa, Egypt, and Mediterranean ports before reaching Italy The study is a major contribution to sensory archaeology, reconstructing ancient smells, materials, and ritual experiences. https://arkeonews.net/sacred-smoke-and-global-trade-pompeiis-ash-reveals-a-2000-year-old-network/

There have been several previous posts about the ancient religion of Zoroastrianism (see below). There has not, however, been a previous post about their unusual practice of exposing the dead outdoors. Some background information first. The two major enemies of Rome, the Parthian and the Sasanian Empires, had connections to Zoroastrianism. The Parthians (247 BCE - AD 244) supported and promoted Zoroastrianism without making it a centralized religion. The Sassanians (AD 224-651), however, turned it into an organized state religion with a strong priesthood and formal doctrine. Both practiced outdoor exposure of the dead, although the Sassanians were more consistent in the practice. Outdoor exposure (leaving bodies in the open for scavengers) was the orthodox method of caring for the dead. Actual burial in the ground was considered ritually polluting unless special precautions were taken. A core funerary principle in Zoroastrianism is that the corpse is nasā (ritually polluting) and must not contaminate earth, fire, water, or air, which were considered sacred. The dead, therefore, were placed outdoors on raised surfaces or platforms (called dakhmas or “Towers of Silence,” as shown above). Dogs and birds, especially vultures, consumed the flesh. The bones were later collected and placed in ossuaries or pits lined with stone.

A Roman villa has been discovered during excavations for wind farms near Dereham in Norfolk—the site dates to the 3-4th century AD and is part of a previously unknown Roman estate in rural Britain. The Roman Villa Located in Norfolk, an area already rich in Roman-period farmsteads and elite rural sites. The villa appears to have been a courtyard-style rural estate, likely belonging to a prosperous Romano-British landowner. Finds include: Building stone Roof tile fragments Domestic debris Traces of wall foundation A small carved stone head with a long neck or snout. Tabloids compared it to the Loch Ness Monster, hence "Nessie." Romano-British sites frequently yield zoomorphic carvings, often blending Roman and Celtic styles. Common motifs include: Serpents (symbol of healing or protection) Boars (warrior symbolism) Horses (linked to the god Epona) Site of find: https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/uk-world-news/roman-villa-norfolk-nessie-discovered-36977186 Previous posts about findings in area:

Gaius Appuleius Diocles (AD 104 till at least 146) may have been Ancient Rome’s most successful (and wealthiest) sports figure. A monument made in his honor at his retirement states: ‘Gaius Appuleius Diocles, charioteer of the Red stable, a Lusitania Spaniard by birth, age 42 years, 7 months, 23 days.’ ‘He raced four horse chariots [similar to the scene above from “Ben-Hur”] for 24 years.’ His earnings are recorded to have been 35,863,120 sesterces. This is equivalent to hundreds of millions of dollars today. Achievements (Unmatched in Antiquity) • Total Races & Wins Number Total races started 4,257 Total victories 1,462-1,463 Second-place finishes 1,438 Wins in single-entry races 1,064 Wins in the most prestigious opening race 110 Chariot racing was the single most popular sport in Ancient Rome, surpassing even gladiatorial combat in scale, frequency, and cultural impact. The Circus Maximus drew crowds in the hundreds of thousands, and Romans devoted far more festival days to racing than to any other form of entertainment. The Circus Maximus could hold 150,000-250,000 spectators, making it the largest sports venue in the ancient world. Some estimates suggest 200,000+ people attended major race days More Race Days Than Any Other Sport Rome scheduled around 60 days per year for chariot racing. Gladiatorial games, by contrast, had about 10 days annually. Below is a short video describing this incredible athlete: https://earlychurchhistory.org/entertainment/diocles-the-most-successful-charioteer/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Appuleius_Diocles

Did the Gauls bury some individuals in the sitting position? Here are two recent stories about different sites in France supporting that belief: Dijon (Euronews) Five adult males, seated upright in small circular pits Violent injuries (cuts, skull blows) No grave goods except a black stone armband Found during schoolyard renovation Dijon now has 20+ seated burials, making it the largest cluster in Europe https://www.euronews.com/culture/2026/03/19/the-dijon-five-ancient-skeletons-found-sitting-upright-in-french-school-playground Paris (Jerusalem Post) Five new seated burials, added to 13 found earlier, for a total of 18 (see picture above) All arranged in a straight 25-meter line Unhealed cuts on humeri; one man struck twice in the skull Same posture: seated, back to east wall, legs tightly flexed. https://www.jpost.com/archaeology/article-891714 Both these sites date from 300-200 BCE. Both these sites feature Gallic males who suffered violent trauma. There are minimal grave goods (possibly supporting the belief that these were criminals, war captives, or ritual sacrifices). Archaeologists lean toward a ritualized killing or ritualized burial of socially marked individuals-possibly warriors, captives, or men involved in a specific ceremonial role. But no single explanation fits all the evidence.

There have been new insights from reading previously-unknown ancient manuscripts such as the Herculaneum scrolls. The results of the deciphering of papyrus fragments from the first century BCE of Empedocles have recently been published. Empedocles was a 5th century BCE Greek philosopher. Scholars have identified a 2,000-year-old papyrus in the Cairo archives that preserves previously unknown verses of Empedocles' philosophical poem On Nature, offering the most significant new primary evidence of his thought in 25 years. The fragment-first noticed in 2021 and published in 2024-2026—clarifies Empedocles' theories of cosmology, perception, and the cyclical forces of Love and Strife, and is being hailed as part of a modern "second Renaissance" of rediscovered ancient texts. Roughly 30 previously unknown lines of On Nature The left column describes the cosmic sphere breaking apart under Strife The right column contains dactylic hexameters on sensory perception, including Empedocles' idea that particles of fire enable vision https://greekreporter.com/2024/09/04/discovery-papyrus-fragment-empedocles/ https://arkeonews.net/second-renaissance-of-ancient-texts-2000-year-old-cairo-papyrus-reveals-lost-verses-of-empedocles/#google_vignette

My imagined image of Julius Caesar is certainly a Hollywood-inspired image (such as the images above and below from the HBO series “Rome”) The Tusculum bust (pictured below) is the only extant sculpture thought to be made in his lifetime: This image above is consistent with coins minted shortly before his assassination in 44 BCE. This short video below describes the supposed image of Julius Caesar. One suggested image of Julius Caesar: Here’s a modern depiction

Here’s an interesting article on the Lycurgus cup: https://open.substack.com/pub/worldpolitics/p/the-lycurgus-cup-how-roman-craftsmen?r=k9yfw&utm_medium=ios

Two previously unread Assyrian texts were finally deciphered. The tablets documented homicide-related restitution (described as “blood money.”) A high resolution CT scan was used to help read one of the damaged tablets with faint surface inscriptions. (Above is a similar tablet to the ones examined.) These tablets were written by Assyrian merchants living in the trading colony (karum) at Kültepe/Kaneš in central Anatolia, roughly 1950-1750 BCE. These tablets come from the same massive archive-over 23,000 documents-created by Assyrian merchant families who recorded business, legal, and personal matters in cuneiform. Blood money (Akkadian: dāmum) was a formal, legally regulated compensation payment owed when a person-especially a merchant—was killed during commercial activity. It was not a bribe, not a private settlement, and not a clan-based vendetta payment. It was a state-enforced obligation between political authorities. If an Assyrian merchant was killed in an Anatolian city-state, the local ruler of that city was legally responsible for: investigating the killing identifying the perpetrator and paying compensation to the Assyrian merchant community if the killer could not be found If a local Anatolian was killed by an Assyrian, the Assyrian authorities were likewise obligated to pay compensation. This shows a reciprocal, diplomatic legal system between Assyria and the Anatolian kin https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/archaeology/a70835167/blood-money-tablets/

Interesting article about life at Hadrian’s Wall https://open.substack.com/pub/worldpolitics/p/roman-soldier-empire-ancient-hadrians-wall-britain?r=k9yfw&utm_medium=ios

A Roman cargo ship, dating from AD 20 to 50, has been found in the Swiss lake of Neuchâtel. A Roman shipwreck discovered in Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland, has yielded hundreds of exceptionally preserved artifacts-including ceramics, amphorae, chariot parts, and weapons-offering a rare, intact snapshot of early Roman trade and transport between AD 20-50. The cargo's condition is so extraordinary that it is considered one of Switzerland's most significant inland-water Roman finds to date. Identified via aerial photography in November 2024, followed by dives and excavation in 2025. Represents the remains of a Roman merchant vessel operating in a freshwater transport network. The finds so far include Several hundred ceramic vessels: dishes, plates, cups, bowls-mostly regional Swiss Plateau products. Amphorae from Spain: evidence of long-distance olive oil trade. Tools and utensils: insights into daily life and shipboard activity. Chariot and harness components, including remarkably preserved wheels— the only Roman examples ever found in Switzerland. Weapons (including swords): suggesting the merchant ship traveled under military escort. The presence of: Two gladii A military pickaxe (dolabra) A belt buckle A fibula used to fasten a soldier's cloak ...suggests the cargo was either: Escorted by Roman soldiers, or Intended for a Roman legion operating along the Rhine frontier. This aligns with the early-1st-century dating (Tiberius era). Details about the swords discovered: Sword 1 (the sheathed gladius) Still inside its wood-and-metal scabbard Scabbard construction suggests: Wooden core Metal fittings (likely tinned or bronze alloy) Typical of early-1st-century legionary equipment Sword 2 Described simply as a complete gladius No scabbard mentioned Why the swords survived so well: Lake Neuchâtel's chalk-rich, low-oxygen freshwater environment is known to preserve organics unusually well. This explains: Survival of the scabbard, Preservation of wooden chariot wheels and Intact wicker basket found with other cargo https://www.heritagedaily.com/2026/03/rare-roman-treasures-found-on-shipwreck-in-swiss-lake/157564

A Roman settlement has been found in the Southern France city of Gémenos. It dates from the 1st and 3rd centuries AD. A newly excavated 4,000 m2 Roman-era settlement near Gémenos (southern France) reveals a compact but highly organized community with roads, vineyards, baths, metalworking shops, and domestic activity spanning the 1st-3rd centuries AD. The site's mix of agriculture, craft production, and traveler-oriented bathing facilities suggests a small roadside hub integrated into regional movement and trade networks along the ancient routes between Marseille and inland Provence. Southern France (ancient Gallia Narbonensis) was one of the most Romanized regions of Western Europe. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2026/03/roman-era-settlement-found-in-southern-france/157607

Corbridge, a town in Northumberland, England, near Hadrian’s Wall and along the River Tyne, was an important Roman settlement and supply center, yielding many Roman artifacts (see the post below). Today, an exhibit titled “Roman Rivers and Rituals” is on display at Corbridge Roman Town, showcasing Roman discoveries made near the bridge. Pictured above: a Roman knife handle depicting a secutor gladiator was found in the river near Corbridge. A new exhibition at Corbridge Roman Town (Hadrian's Wall, Northumberland) is unveiling a remarkable set of Roman ritual deposits recovered from the River Tyne-objects deliberately offered to river gods at a major bridge crossing. The finds include a gladiator-shaped knife handle, scabbard fittings, a panther-shaped mount, shackles, coins, and personal grooming tools, all discovered by divers in the 1990s and now displayed publicly for the first time. The objects were ritual offerings placed near a Roman bridge on Dere Street, the major road from York into the northern frontier territory. Romans believed running water and river crossings were spiritually potent-and potentially dangerous-thresholds. Travelers, soldiers, and traders offered items to river gods for protection, safe passage, or thanks after leaving the frontier zone of Hadrian's Wall. https://www.hexham-courant.co.uk/news/25970742.rare-roman-objects-hadrians-wall-northumberland-site/ Previous post about the finds:

Researchers believe that an army, possibly allied with the Romans and possibly heading south to join the Roman Empire, was destroyed in Norway in AD 205. A large cache of 1,800-year-old weapons found in a Danish bog may represent a defeated army of roughly 1,000 warriors-possibly from Norway—who were on their way to serve as Roman mercenaries around the year 205 CE. Archaeologists disagree on whether the force truly came from Norway, but the evidence shows deep Scandinavian-Roman connections, early runic writing, and a surprisingly organized military culture in Norway during the Roman Iron Age. https://www.sciencenorway.no/archaeology-denmark-roman-empire/a-roman-army-from-norway-of-a-thousand-men-may-have-fought-in-denmark-1800-years-ago/2600351

Researchers have found several Roman graves during excavation of a future farmer’s market in the Croatian city of Vinkovci (the Roman city Cibalae). The graves date from the 2nd-3rd century AD. This recent article and the older video below discuss the ongoing finds at the site. Cibalae-lying beneath today's Vinkovci-was one of the key towns of Roman Pannonia, noted for its strategic role, its flourishing workshops, and its status as the birthplace of two Roman emperors. https://www.croatiaweek.com/roman-graves-market-site-vinkovci/

Here is a good article on Pytheas of Massalia (b c350 BCE). He was a Greek explorer and geographer who was the first person to write about Britain. (Below is a thread about Pytheas.) https://open.substack.com/pub/worldpolitics/p/pytheas-massalia-ancient-greece-thule-arctic-north?r=k9yfw&utm_medium=ios

Here is a good discussion on the planned excavations later this year of the suspected Roman villa at Port Talbot, Wales. The discovery of a Roman villa in Southern Wales will rewrite British Roman history. This discovery forces a rewriting of Roman Wales: It shows elite Romanized life deep into western Britain. It provides a rare non-military high-status site in Wales, where most Roman remains are forts or camps. It may reshape understanding of 3rd-4th century Romano-British society.

A page of the work of Archimedes, written in AD 900, has been discovered on a palimpsest re-used as a Christian prayer book. There have been previous posts about other palimpsests (see below): [Palimpsest: a manuscript or piece of writing material on which the original writing has been effaced to make room for later writing but of which traces remain.] A French researcher, Victor Gysembergh of CNRS, has rediscovered one of the three missing pages from the famous Archimedes Palimpsest, a medieval manuscript containing rare copies of Archimedes' mathematical works. The page was unexpectedly found in the archives of the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Blois, after Gysembergh jokingly searched the city's manuscript catalog. The rediscovered leaf is a 10th-century copy of Archimedes' treatise "On the Sphere and the Cylinder," containing geometric diagrams and text that match photographs taken in 1906 by scholar Johan Heiberg. The manuscript had been overwritten in the Middle Ages as a Christian prayer book (a typical palimpsest), and the page also contains a later drawing added in the 1900s to increase its value. https://phys.org/news/2026-03-lost-page-legendary-archimedes-palimpsest.html

Roman troops of Lucius Cornelius Sulla conquered the Roman city of Pompeii in 89 BCE. Excavations have found evidence of the related siege of the city with suspected impact scars on the walls and sandstone balls at the site. It is suspected that Roman ballistas caused the damage. The ballista was a powerful torsion-powered artillery weapon, essentially a giant crossbow designed to hurl heavy bolts or stones with high accuracy during sieges and battles. https://phys.org/news/2026-03-pompeii-scars-linked-ancient-machine.html https://www.mdpi.com/2571-9408/9/3/96 Video on the Roman ballista:

Here’s a well-done short video on the discovery:

I’m glad you are feeling better but … you have inspired me to take Lutein / Zeaxanthan supplements to prevent my cataracts.

I saw this interesting picture (above) on Substack (Architecture & Tradition). The Aqueduct of Valens, the longest aqueduct built in Roman times, is still partially intact in Istanbul (formerly Constantinople, Turkey). It was originally completed by Valens in AD 373. The 4th-century first phase was 268 km (167 miles).

There have been several posts on the Roman trade to the East, including India and Vietnam (see posts below). Here’s another video on the topic by Invicta