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Thanks for reading my post. I agree the current obsession with race can distort and even trivialize research findings. Even so, an individual of African descent being found in distant Bulgaria is historically meaningful, because it highlights the interconnectedness of the Empire. More importantly for me, I was surprised that so few elderly individuals were discovered among the remains studied.

A rounded limestone fragment is thought to be a piece of a game. It was found near Heerlen, Netherlands, at the archaeological site of Corovallum. AI was used to evaluate the use-wear, leading to proposed guidelines. Below are images of potential glass game pieces discovered at the site. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/this-ancient-roman-game-board-was-a-mystery-researchers-used-ai-to-figure-out-how-to-play-180988266/ https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/ludus-coriovalli-using-artificial-intelligencedriven-simulations-to-identify-rules-for-an-ancient-board-game/E5644BD43F8A5DC86DD1183A3E645ED9 Corovallum near Heerlen was a military and civilian settlement on the frontier of Germania Inferior. The site was an important industrial and logistical hub, known for large-scale Roman pottery production.

There was a previous post about the rare Roman practice of gypsum burial (see below). Above is a 3D picture of a gypsum burial of two adults and an infant. Maureen Carroll, a researcher in York, has studied approximately 70 gypsum burials. At least seven belonged to children, including three infants under 4 months old, two in middle to late childhood, and two adolescents. The gypsum burial occurred in 3rd and 4th century AD in Roman York. It involved placing the body in a container of stone or lead as well as clothing and wrapping the body. The body was then covered with gypsum before burial. Because of the expense and effort involved with gypsum burials, bodies of infants were usually placed in far less expensive amphorae or parts of amphorae, ceramic tile boxes, or wooden boxes. This finding points to at least elite families’ treasuring their young children. https://seeingthedead.ac.uk/blog/children-among-dead-yorks-gypsum-burials https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/romans/babies-werent-supposed-to-be-mourned-in-the-roman-empire-these-rare-liquid-gypsum-burials-prove-otherwise

Two Roman lead ingots have been discovered by two local detectorists in Ceredigion, Wales. They have a production date of AD 87, during the reign of Domitian. This finding helps to confirm the developed industrial and cultural base in Roman Wales. There have been several previous posts on recent Roman discoveries in Wales (see below). https://nation.cymru/news/rare-roman-treasure-found-by-metal-detectorists/ Ceredigion, Wales:

The Greco-Roman city of Heraclea Sintica in Bulgaria has been the site of archaeological research (see post below). Analysis of a necropolis of 156 graves at the site of yielded some interesting findings. Most of the individuals studied died before the age of 40, with a rare individual over 60. One woman researched had died in the second half of the fourth century AD and was aged 35-40. Analysis points to someone of mixed European and African descent. https://www.bta.bg/en/news/culture/1070372-anthropological-analysis-reveals-mixed-race-inhabitants-of-heraclea-sintica

A Roman-era coffin, containing “the Princess of Bagicz,” has been the source of controversy. It is the only wooden coffin from the Roman era found in Poland. It was discovered in northwestern Poland in 1899, after erosion caused it to fall off a cliff into the Baltic Sea. The coffin is a hollow oak log typical of the Wielbark culture (1st–4th c. AD). The woman, aged 25–30 and about 145 cm tall, showed signs of lower-spine osteoarthritis, suggesting she engaged in hard labor despite her elite burial. Grave goods included a bronze fibula, a bone pin, two bronze bracelets, and a necklace made of glass and amber. Organic items such as a stool, hide, and textiles were originally present but were lost during WWII. The burial's dating has been a subject of debate. Radiocarbon analysis yielded a date range of 160 BCE to AD 50, while the artifacts suggested a later date of AD 110-160. A dendrochronological analysis of the tree rings was conducted in 2024. It suggested that her wooden coffin was made around AD 120 (± 7 or 8 years). The burial of the Princess of Bagicz, long debated due to conflicting radiocarbon and typological dates, has now been precisely dated to the early 2nd century AD based on dendrochronological analysis of the oak log coffin. The woman, a young adult of modest stature but high social status, was interred with jewelry and imported materials characteristic of the Wielbark culture. Isotope analysis indicates Scandinavian origins, possibly Öland (an island off the southeast coast of Sweden in the Baltic Sea). This case illustrates the limitations of radiocarbon dating in environments influenced by reservoir and hard-water effects. Late Roman writer Jordanes claimed the Goths originated in Scandinavia and crossed the Baltic to settle near the Vistula. Archaeology can't confirm this directly, but it does show a surge in Scandinavian cultural elements during the formation of the Wielbark culture. Burial practices such as log coffins, stone circles, specific brooches, and elite female dress resemble those of southern Sweden, especially Öland and Gotland. The Princess of Bagicz burial illustrates Scandinavian mobility and influence during the early Wielbark period. Her oak log coffin, dated to around AD 120, along with her grave goods, situates her within this cultural context. Strontium isotope analysis shows she came from Öland, Sweden, providing rare evidence of Scandinavian movement. Her coffin, jewelry, and burial style align with Scandinavian elite traditions, reflecting migration, cultural blending, and identity formation related to the Goths. Her burial confirms that Scandinavians were present and shaping the region's cultural landscape. https://archaeologymag.com/2026/02/the-princess-of-bagicz-re-dated/ https://www.thehistoryblog.com/archives/75418 https://www.lifetechnology.com/blogs/life-technology-science-news/new-study-resolves-dating-discrepancy-in-roman-iron-age-coffin https://www.newsdirectory3.com/roman-coffin-age-solved-dendrochronology-dates-princess-of-bagicz/ Dating Ancient Wood:

This is an interesting video that attempts to explain why Roman civilization in Britain collapsed completely after the Roman withdrawal, while in other parts of the Empire, such as Gaul (modern France), it adapted and survived. Four reasons explain this difference: 1. Geography: Britain's island status led to greater isolation. 2. Thin elite: The Romano-Celtic elite in Britain was less established than in Gaul, resulting in fewer people invested in maintaining Roman systems. 3. Anglo-Saxon unfamiliarity: Unlike the Franks, the Anglo-Saxons had no prior connection or appreciation for Roman institutions. 4. No Church presence: In Gaul, the Catholic Church acted as a bridge institution, safeguarding literacy, law, and administration, but such a bridge was absent or underdeveloped in conquered Britain. Britain’s experience shows that the Roman Empire didn’t collapse uniformly. Britain’s unique and total civilizational collapse highlights that the survival of Roman culture depended on the active preservation by institutions, which failed or were destroyed in Britain.

The Passage of Commodus has finally been opened to the public. This article is a follow-up to an earlier post (see the post above). Colosseum Archaeological Park — Rome The article announces the first-ever public opening of the Passage of Commodus, the hidden corridor Roman emperors used to enter the Colosseum unseen. After a major restoration, roughly 30 meters of the passage are now accessible. Key Points The Passage is a secret imperial corridor leading directly to the emperor’s box in the Colosseum. 1. Restoration Highlights Marble-clad walls restored, with visible traces of ancient metal clamps. Stucco vault decorations depicting Dionysus, Ariadne, and arena scenes (see picture below). Painted plaster and reconstructed vault sections recreate the original play of light. A tactile map and digital reconstructions help visitors understand lost iconography. 2. Accessibility & Visitor Experience Restoration funded partly through Italy’s National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP). It was made handicap-accessible with a retractable staircase. Small groups of eight visitors at a time may enter Visitors can watch ongoing restoration work through a glass door at the end of the route. 3. Where the Passage Led (Still Unknown) Two main hypotheses: - It was connected to the imperial palaces on the Palatine Hill. - It was linked to the Ludus Magnus, the gladiators’ training complex. Inside the Colosseum’s Passage of Commodus, where emperors once walked | Popular Science

There was a previous post on the painting, dressing, and perfuming of ancient statues (see below). Here is another article on the use of perfumes on ancient statues, which helps confirm the belief that the ancient world, including Ancient Rome, was a vibrant place, not the marble-white world previously imagined. Above are replicas of the Peplos Kore statue from the Acropolis in Athens (c. 530 BCE). The replica to the right shows how the image looked in antiquity. Summary of the Article Archaeologists have uncovered strong evidence that ancient Greek and Roman statues were painted, dressed, and perfumed. This suggests that classical sculpture was a multisensory experience rather than merely a visual art form. Key Findings A new study in the Oxford Journal of Archaeology shows that statues were treated with oils, waxes, and aromatic substances to enhance their appearance. Lead researcher Cecilie Brøns analyzed ancient texts and physical residues on sculptures, demonstrating that scent played a deliberate role in how statues were experienced. Historical Evidence Classical authors such as Cicero and Callimachus described statues being anointed with perfumes. Records from Delos list materials like olive oil, beeswax, and rose perfumes used in ritual offerings. Perfuming statues was part of religious devotion, not mere decoration. Archaeological Evidence Excavations on Delos uncovered perfume workshops, suggesting local production for ritual use. Techniques like ganosis (coating with wax and oil) preserved and enhanced statue surfaces. Roman authors Vitruvius and Pliny the Elder recorded the use of specific waxes and oils for various purposes. sculpture maintenance. Multisensory Ritual Context Statues were also decorated with textiles and jewelry (kosmesis), emphasizing their sacred importance. During festive celebrations such as Floralia, statues were decorated with flowers, creating a pleasant natural scent in the air. Residues such as beeswax on a statue of Queen Berenice II indicate that scented treatments can survive archaeologically. https://greekreporter.com/2026/02/15/greek-statues-paint-dress-perfume/

Professor Licence found an interesting hoard, known as The Bury St Edmunds Hoard, in Britain last year. The remarkable Iron Age hoard of 18 gold coins was discovered on March 9, 2024, by Prof. Tom Licence of the University of East Anglia while metal-detecting near Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk. The coins date to the reign of Dubnovellaunos, a ruler of the Trinovantes tribe between 25 BC and AD 10, and the find is now considered the largest known hoard associated with him. Tom Licence, Professor of Medieval History and Literature at the University of East Anglia: The hoard includes 16 gold staters and 1 quarter-stater, along with an Addedomaros wheel stater that helps confirm the correct spelling of the ruler Addedomaros’s name. One coin was struck from a previously unrecorded die, adding to the scholarly value of the discovery. The coins were found on an east-facing slope, a location often associated with ritual or votive deposits. Licence believes the combination of the rising sun and a nearby spring suggests a spiritual purpose behind the burial. The hoard is expected to fetch around £25,000 at auction. The sale is scheduled for March 4, 2026, with individual coins estimated at £1,500-£3,600. Licence and the landowner will each keep one coin and share compensation through the Portable Antiquities Scheme. Here is information from the auctioneer's catalogue: Who Were the Trinovantes? The Trinovantes were among the most powerful Iron Age tribes in southeastern Britain before the Roman conquest. They minted their own coinage and maintained political ties with neighboring tribes, including the Catuvellauni. Their territory encompassed modern Essex, Suffolk, and parts of Hertfordshire. Why Gold Staters Matter: Gold staters were high‑value coins used for: Elite gift‑exchange Paying warriors or mercenaries Ritual offerings Diplomatic relationships between tribes Finding a concentrated group of them—especially from a single ruler—is rare and historically significant. Dubnovellaunos: A Shadowy King Dubnovellaunos is known primarily through: Coin inscriptions A brief mention in Roman sources His rule likely overlapped with the early years of Roman expansion into Britain. Coins bearing his name help historians map political boundaries and alliances during a turbulent period. Religious Significance of Hoards Many Iron Age hoards appear to be votive offerings rather than savings buried for later retrieval. Common features include: Placement near springs or water sources Burial on hill slopes or ridges Orientation toward the rising sun The location of this hoard fits that pattern, strengthening the theory of ritual deposition. History professor finds huge Iron Age hoard Summary of Info - Noonans.indd

A Roman apse has been found beneath Cologne’s town square. An apse is built into the end of a hall or larger room, which signifies a large public structure and not a warehouse or private residence. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2026/02/monumental-roman-apse-discovered-beneath-colognes-town-hall-square/157010 https://www.labrujulaverde.com/en/2026/02/excavations-at-the-roman-governors-praetorium-in-cologne-uncover-a-1st-century-staircase-that-connected-to-the-rhine-and-the-first-lararium-north-of-the-alps/

Below is a short video about a portion of the Roman London wall preserved in a London car park at Coleman Street. Discovered in the 1950s, the wall dates to around AD190-225. It is probably part of the plans to build fortifications by Septimius Severus. This is the only section standing of the northern side of the London Wall surviving today. https://www.exploringgb.co.uk/blog/roman-wall-london-underground-car-park

The video below has corrected some of my misconceptions about Mithraism. 1. Roman Mithraism is quite distinct from and doesn't really connect to Eastern or Persian traditions, including the Iranian god Mitra (Mithra). 2. The cult probably began in Rome during the late first century AD and quickly gained popularity among soldiers stationed at the frontiers. 3. Mithraism mostly attracted members from the middle and lower social classes instead of the Roman elite. Roman Mithras and the Indo-Iranian Mitra differ in their beliefs and practices, reflecting their distinct cultural contexts. In Iran, Miθra was seen as a protector of oaths and the cosmic order, embodying stability and justice. In Roman Mithraism, he assumed a more mysterious role as a guardian of the soul, thereby adding a spiritual dimension. Features such as initiation stages, cave shrines, and the tauroctony are characteristic of Roman Mithraism but are absent from Iranian worship, highlighting their cultural distinctions. The earliest clear archaeological evidence of Mithraism appears in Rome around the late first century AD, particularly in Rome itself, eastern Gaul, Britain, and military regions along the Rhine and Danube. Notably, mentions in the eastern provinces are rare, suggesting the movement was less popular there. The Roman cult of Mithras was often called “Eastern” because people believed its foreign roots gave it a touch of prestige and mysterious wisdom. Linking Mithras to Persia added an exotic and intriguing appeal, even though it actually developed in Rome. The “Eastern” label mostly reflected Roman perceptions of foreign religious knowledge rather than any genuine historical ties. Mithraism mainly attracted soldiers, freedmen, craftsmen, laborers, and slaves. While it wasn't as popular among the aristocracy, it often thrived on military sites, in workshops, and in local neighborhoods. This shows how deeply woven into daily Roman life Mithraism was, bearing more resemblance to other Roman mystery cults than to the aristocratic or priestly Persian traditions. Sites of worship of Mithras: Some previous posts about Mithraism:

My wife enjoys the TV series The Pitt. It’s about events in a trauma center in Pittsburgh.

Research is continuing at Roman Magna Fort at Hadrian’s Wall. A terracotta head, a suspected goddess, has been found at the site (pictured above and below). https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c62w2g7dwpeo This is one of the many finds discovered at the site (see post below).

There have been (possibly an excessive number of) earlier posts about the enigmatic ancient dodecahedron (see below). Roman dodecahedra have puzzled archaeologists since 1739, when the first 12-sided bronze artifact was found in the English Midlands. Over nearly three hundred years, both experts and enthusiasts have proposed numerous theories about why these objects were valued, but their true purpose remains unconfirmed. One perplexing issue is that dodecahedra were found outside the Italian peninsula, mostly in Celtic regions of the Empire. The video below argues that these dodecahedra were of Celtic origin rather than Roman origin. There have been at least 116 dodecahedra found in the Roman Empire: Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. None has been in the Roman heartland in Italy. They are always found north of the Alps. Bronze dodecahedra are primarily found in Celtic regions rather than in Italy, suggesting they were probably not created by the Romans. Supporters note that about 120 examples have been uncovered in areas historically inhabited by Celtic peoples, and none have been found in Italy, even though they are called “Roman.” Supporters argue that this geographic pattern indicates a local Celtic tradition instead of a Roman import. They also highlight that the objects’ consistent geometric design—comprising twelve pentagonal faces with knobs—displays variations in decorative details. Some interpret this as evidence of regional Celtic artistic styles rather than standardized Roman manufacturing. A related argument highlights the lack of Roman documentation. No Roman texts, inscriptions, or depictions clarify their purpose, which is unusual for Roman tools or ritual items. This absence of evidence suggests that Romans may not have been the original creators but possibly encountered, adopted, or coexisted with an artifact of Celtic origin. Modern proponents, including independent researchers, frame the Celtic-origin hypothesis as more consistent with the archaeological context, suggesting that the objects may have served ritual, astronomical, or measurement functions within Celtic societies. At 13:20 in the video below, a medieval manuscript is mentioned that might contain information about the dodecahedra.

Here is a video on some interesting facts about the series “Rome.”

It’s been a while since there has been a post about Hannibal’s elephants, which he brought over the Alps to terrorize Roman troops in 218 BCE. (See post below) Researchers have found ancient bones in Córdoba, Spain, that belonged to an African elephant, the type of elephant used by Hannibal and the Carthaginians (pictured below). The African elephant was not native to Spain. Hannibal used African elephants, in contrast to the larger Asian elephant used by Pyrrhus and later by the Seleucids, against Rome. These findings suggest that the elephant may have been: A Carthaginian war elephant stationed in Iberia before Hannibal’s march. A gift or trade animal from North Africa. A local elephant (unlikely, since native elephants were extinct by then). A symbolic or ritual animal used in elite ceremonies. The researchers also found spherical stones thought to be used for Carthaginian catapults (picture below) https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/romans/landmark-elephant-bone-finding-in-spain-may-be-from-time-of-hannibals-war-against-rome https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352409X2600012X?via%3Dihub A good video about Hannibal’s drunk elephants:

A medieval ring has been found in Britain that features an ancient Roman intaglio as its centerpiece. The ring dates from 1200 to 1400 AD, while the Roman intaglio inset dates from the Augustan period of the Roman Empire. Key Points A metal detectorist found a 1-inch silver pendant dating from 1200–1400 CE in Essex, England. The pendant features a mirrored Latin inscription “SECRETVM.RICARDI” (“Richard’s secret/secret seal”) engraved to create wax impressions. Its centerpiece is a red Roman intaglio depicting a racing chariot. The intaglio in the Essex pendant dates to the late 1st century BCE or early 1st century CE. This comes from stylistic comparison with other Roman biga (two‑horse chariot) intaglios, which places it firmly in the early Roman Imperial period. Such reused gemstones are rare but known: medieval people sometimes incorporated ancient gems found while farming. The object illustrates Roman influence on medieval Britain, centuries after Rome's departure in 410 CE. The authorities in the U.K. have officially designated the pendant as a treasure, and the Braintree Museum is eager to acquire it, so the public can enjoy viewing it on display. https://www.popsci.com/science/medieval-pendant-roman-secret/ Medieval seal with Roman chariot intaglio found in Essex – The History Blog Rare medieval seal from the UK bears 'Richard’s Secret' inscription and Roman-era gemstone | Archaeology News Online Magazine Below is a previous post about the intaglios found in Roman Britain

Thank you for the wonderful video. Ancient Rome had its spectacular buildings and monuments. My only criticism of these reproductions is that they usually fail to capture the vibrant colors of the facades, whether in painting or in colorized marble. As I wrote previously, Ancient Rome was a city of bright colors and gaudy facades, more akin to modern-day Las Vegas than the sterile white-marble city Hollywood depicts. Here is a recent recreation of the Arch of Titus in Rome and its suspected vibrant colors. Here is a previous post about Rome’s potential use of colorized marble, creating vibrant, colorful marble structures.

Professor Gregory Aldrete provides an excellent video on life in the city of Ancient Rome. He examines the "five major hazards that characterized life in ancient Rome: floods, fires, famines, filth, and fevers." He nicely summarizes the grim realities faced daily by the typical Roman resident. According to a grisly (and perhaps exaggerated) statistic from the professor, it is estimated that 1500 corpses were abandoned in the streets of Rome each year, left to rot or to be scavenged by animals. (The above scenes were taken from the HBO series “Rome.”)

The short video above suggests that the peak of Ancient Rome’s urban architecture was around AD 320, a time when its design and structure were at their best. (Interestingly, the most innovative phase was actually in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.) I wondered why AD 320 is seen as the height of Rome’s structural achievement. Historians and archaeologists often point to this period because: Nearly every major imperial-era monument still stood and was maintained. The Colosseum, Pantheon, imperial fora, baths, temples, basilicas, and aqueducts — all intact. Constantine’s building boom added new monumental structures rather than replacing the old ones. His basilicas and triumphal arches were layered over an already dense architectural landscape. Urban infrastructure like aqueducts, sewers, roads, and public spaces remained operational and maintained. No major sack or catastrophic depopulation had yet occurred. The Visigothic sack of 410 (only 90 years after this peak) and subsequent declines were still ahead. Note: In AD 320, Pagan temples remained officially open, and Christianization had not yet resulted in their closure. Rome’s architectural landscape in AD 320 includes the Colosseum, Pantheon, Roman Forum and Imperial Fora, Circus Maximus, major temples, prominent baths such as Caracalla and Diocletian, aqueducts, roads, bridges, and early Christian basilicas such as Lateran and St. Peter’s. In AD 320 Constantine was co-emperor along with Licinius. (Licinius governed the Balkans and Eastern provinces, while Constantine ruled the West.) At that time, Christianity was tolerated but not yet the official state religion. Paganism still dominated state ceremonies, priesthoods, festivals and public identity in AD 320. Christianity was growing rapidly (especially in the West) but had no exclusive status. (The Empire would not adopt Christianity as its official religion until AD 380 under Theodosius I. Following AD 320, Constantinople rapidly emerged as the actual hub of the empire's power, wealth, and growth, whereas Rome transformed into a symbolic, historic, and religious capital rather than a political center.

Two tombs dating to the Roman Republic have been discovered in Rome's Parco delle Acacie. One tomb contained a stone sarcophagus and three cremation urns, while the other held the remains of a man’s skeleton. The tombs were discovered in a cemetery located near a shrine dedicated to the deified Hercules. Hercules served as a guardian figure, protecting the deceased from hostile forces. He safeguarded their journey into the underworld and watched over their graves. https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/romans/2-400-year-old-hercules-shrine-and-elite-tombs-discovered-in-romes-suburbs https://archaeology.org/news/2026/01/23/2400-year-old-tombs-and-possible-shrine-uncovered-in-rome/

In Essex, Britain, in 2024 a copper-alloy ornament of a panther resting its paws on a severed head was discovered. It dates from AD43-200. Originally yellow-orange, the ornament is thought to be part of a pair of decorative items on a carriage. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c17zp8pl0pjo

(Scene of Brutus feasting with Cato and Pompey while besieging Caesar from the HBO series “Rome.”) The above video made me wonder: How did Romans preserve food for storage and long journeys? Here are a few ways: 🏺 Core Preservation Methods Salting: One of the most widespread preservation methods, salting drew moisture from meat and fish, slowing bacterial growth. Romans relied heavily on this technique for pork, fish, and even certain vegetables. Smoking: Meat and fish were suspended over low, smoldering fires. The smoke dehydrated the food while infusing it with antimicrobial compounds and distinctive flavors. Pickling: Many foods were preserved by submerging them in brine, vinegar, or a combination of both. This method worked especially well for vegetables, fruits, and some meats. Drying: Fruits, meats, and grains were commonly dried in the sun or wind. The warm, dry Mediterranean climate made dehydration a particularly effective and accessible technique. Storing in oil or honey: Items such as fruits, cheeses, and even prepared dishes could be submerged in olive oil or honey to limit air exposure and slow spoilage. Fermentation: Certain foods, most famously garum (a fermented fish sauce), were preserved through controlled decomposition aided by salt. This process created long-lasting, nutrient-rich condiments. Cool storage: Wealthier Romans sometimes used deep cellars, snow pits, or imported ice to keep food cool. While effective, this method was limited to those with the resources to maintain such facilities. 🍇 Why These Methods Worked Roman preservation techniques focused on controlling moisture, acidity, salt concentration, and exposure to air—the same scientific principles that underpin modern food preservation. These methods were essential for sustaining large urban populations and provisioning armies, enabling food to travel long distances and remain edible across changing seasons. A previous post on Roman cool storage: Here is a longer video on Roman food preservation: