Introduction
The rape of Lucretia, according to Livy, was the fundamental "last straw" in the overthrow of the Etruscan King Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. The transition from the Etruscan monarchy to republic (510-509 BC) was not, however, a simple institutional change. In place of the King, the newly founded Republic relied upon its Senate, or patrician class families, to oversee the government and the election of various officials, including two shared power Consuls. This transformation from monarchy to representative style government, headed by the elite social class, would prove to have troubles of its own. (Related Page: Kings of Rome)
After the overthrow of the Tarquin dynasty, led by Junius Brutus, the ancient Romans avoided a true monarchal government for the remainder of their storied history. Even the later imperial government maintained forms of the republican system. While in practice it could be a system of absolute power for the Emperor, it was theoretically still checked by the Senate and other representative ideals. This same Junius Brutus was later claimed as an ancestor by the Republican loyalist Marcus Brutus who was among the conspirators in the assassination of Julius Caesar, and shows the deeply rooted Roman aversion to Kings. It was the era of the Republic in which the great expansion of Roman civilization, power and structure set the path for European dominance. In these formative and expansive years, Rome was ruled by its Senate and its people's assemblies. The offices of power were divided among various elected officials to avoid the conglomeration of power and the re-institution of the monarchy.
These magistracies were, in essence, a division of previous monarchal powers. The Romans instituted a constitution which would dictate the traditions and institutions of government for the Roman people. This constitution, however, was not a formal or even written document, but rather a series of unwritten traditions and laws. Deeply rooted in pre-Republican tradition, it essentially maintained all the same monarchal powers and divided them amongst a series of people, rather than in one supreme ruler.
Patricians and Plebeians
Discontent and political upheaval lay ahead for the fledgling Republic, since the new constitution was flawed and exclusive in nature for the general population (plebeians). Rome was surrounded by powerful external enemies, including its former Etruscan rulers, and Patrician (the hereditary aristocratic families) in-fighting with each other and the plebeian (common people) class was an immediate source of difficulty. The Romans developed a complex client system, where aristocratic families pledged allegiance and voting support to other powerful families. In exchange for political appointments and advocating of various agendas, some power groups were able to subvert the state and the will of the masses for personal gain.
The words Patrician and Plebeian have taken on different connotations of wealthy and poor in modern English, but no such distinction existed in Roman times. The two classes were simply ancestral or inherited. A citizen's class was fixed by birth rather than by wealth. Patricians monopolized all of the political offices and probably most of the wealth in the early Republic, but there were many wealthy plebeians, and conversly many patrician families had little claim to wealth or prestige other than their family heritage. The relationship between the plebeians and the patricians sometimes came under intense strain, as a result of this exclusion from political influence. In response the plebeians - on several occasions - abandoned the city, leaving the patricians without a working class to support their political whims.
The Struggle of the Orders
Roman imperium, or the power of law and command, was fully concentrated in the patrician class. The consuls were elected from among the patricians, as were the quaestors, praetors and censors. The ensuing class conflicts from the domination of political power by one class over another, in a virtual transfer of power from King to Senate, was called "the struggle of the orders". In effect, it was simply the recurring pattern of the patrician class attempting to hold onto power, while the plebeians worked to rise to social and political equality. The patricians, while mostly secure in their wealth and noble foundation, were also unable to exist without the plebeians. The plebeian class not only produced the grain and supplied the labor that maintained the Roman economy; they also formed the recruiting basis as soldiers for the Roman republican legions.
In 494 BC, only 15 years after the founding of the Republic, a withdrawal of plebeians to the Sacred Mount outside Rome, ushered in a fundamental change to the Republican government. The plebes formed a tribal assembly, and their own alternative government, until the patricians agreed to the establishment of an office that would have sacrosanctity (sacrosanctitas). This was the right to be legally protected from any physical harm, and the right of help (ius auxiliandi), meaning the legal ability to rescue any plebeian from the hands of a patrician magistrate. These magistrate positions were labelled as Tribunes or tribuni plebes. Later, the tribunes acquired a far more formidable, and often manipulated power, the right of intercession (ius intercessio). This was the right to veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including another tribune, for the good of the people. The tribune also had the power to exercise capital punishment against any person who interfered in the performance of his duties. The tribune's power to act was enforced by a pledge of the plebeians to kill any person who harmed a tribune during his term of office.
In 451 BC, another Plebeian withdrawal from the city led to the appointment of the decemvirate, or a commission of ten men. This eventually resulted in the adoption of the bronze engraved Laws of the Twelve Tables, and raised the number of plebeian Tribunes to 10. In 445 BC, the Canuleian law legalized marriages between patricians and members of the plebs. Along with later inter-class adoptions, plebeians were allowed additional class mobility and eventual inclusion into previous Patrician-only magistracies. In 367 BC the plebeians gained the right to be elected consul, and a year later in 366 BC the first was elected. Thereafter, the Licinian-Sextian laws demanded that at least one consul be a plebeian. After the completion of the term of consular office, the plebeian consul became a member of the Senate, resulting in the disintegration of the patrician hold on the Senate. Furthermore, in 300 BC, plebeians were allowed to serve at all levels of the priesthood, thus making them religiously equal to the patricians. Finally, the greatest achievement of power for the people, in 287 BC, the decisions and legislation of the plebeian assembly, Concilium Plebis or "Council of the Plebeians", became not only binding on the plebeians, but on the entire Roman citizenry.
All power was not shifted away from the patricians, however. While still maintaining significant power through clients and the prestige of their heritage, they were also able to turn the tables. Using the plebeian adoption methodology for upward mobility, some patricians used it to adopt into the plebeian class and become available to serve as plebeian-only Tribunes. While a rare occurrence, such mobility made the entire political spectrum open to the ruling classes.
This political upheaval brought about a new aristocracy, composed of patrician and wealthy plebeian families, and admission to the Senate became almost the hereditary privilege of these families. The Senate, which in its original function maintained no law making and little administrative power, became a powerful governing force. They oversaw matters of war and peace, foreign alliances, the founding of colonies, and the handling of the state finances. The rise of this new nobilitas ended the conflict between the upper echelons of the two orders, but the position of the poorer plebeian families was not improved. In fact, a class designation of equestrian (knight), originally composed of patrician senatorial families, developed into one including plebes that signified a particular level of wealth, and further separated the plebeian elite from the common people. The decided contrast between the conditions of the rich and the poor led to struggles in the later Republic between the aristocratic party and the popular party. These struggles developed into one of several major factors in the eventual collapse of the Republican system.
The Roman Republican Constitution
As the Romans never had a written constitution, it is difficult to neatly fit their government into anything that corresponds to modern systems.
However, especially from the time of the passage of the Lex Hortensia (287 BC), it is similar to that of the American division of executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as the Roman system was the basis for the American one.
The system developed into one of checks and balances, with the aristocratic Patrician-dominated Senate being counterbalanced by popular elections of chief magistrates and the Plebeian Tribunes.
The Three Citizen Assemblies
The three citizen assemblies or Comitia, were called the Comitia Curiata, Comitia Centuriata and the Comitia (Plebis) Tributa (or Concilium Plebis or Populi Tributa). These were composed of all Roman male citizens, requiring individuals to attend in person in order to vote. No debate from the floor was possible, and votes were counted in groups, not individually (the vote of each group was determined by the vote of the majority of individuals in that group). All three assemblies included the entire electorate of citizens, but each had a different internal organization (and therefore differences in the weight of an individual citizen's vote). In essence, each voting citizen had three potential votes, but each carried a different weight or responsibility.
Curiate Assembly (Comitia Curiata)
The oldest unit of organization within the Roman system. The 30 curiae of the early city (10 for each of the 3 early tribes), were based on clan and family associations. The Curiate was limited to patricians as it reflected the oldest and most distinguished of the tribes. Each member had a single vote and the majority victor within each Curiate had one vote. This meant there were 30 separate votes within each Curiate, and that the Curiata as a whole would then have one vote to support its majority opinion. The Curiata became obsolete as a legislative body with the rise of plebeian assemblies and further classifications of the nobility, but preserved its functions of endowing senior magistrates with imperium and witnessing religious affairs. The head of each curia was at least 50 years in age and elected for life.
Centuriate Assembly (Comitia Centuriata)
The most important of the Comitia units of organization within the Roman political system. There were 193 centuries, divided into 6 classes based on wealth and age, which were originally reflective of military units. Membership in the classes was based on the capability to furnish armed men in groups of 100 (hence century). This group was controlled by the patrician and equestrian class, as the votes were weighted in favor of land owners and wealthy. The Centuriate elected censors and magistrates with imperium (consuls and praetors), was the proper body for approving the declaration of war; passed some laws; and served as the highest court of appeal in cases involving capital punishment.
Tribal Assembly (Comitia Plebis Tributa)
The Plebeian assembly was originally intended for the election of tribunes and deliberation of plebeians. The organization consisted of 1 urban tribe and 31 rural tribes, in which the membership was based on place of residence until 241 BC. From that date on, local significance was largely lost, and membership was based mainly on heredity. The Tributa (and later a subassembly, the Concilium Plebis) elected the lower magistrates (tribunes, aediles, quaestors). As it was simpler to convene and register 35 tribes than 193 centuries, it was more frequently used to pass legislation (plebiscites). Voting in favor of 31 less-densely populated rural tribes - with presence in Rome required to cast a ballot - the assembly was controlled by landed aristocracy. It eventually became the chief law-making body, as the laws of the Tribal Assembly became binding on the entire state.
The Decline of the Roman Republic
Victory over Carthage in the Third Punic War and conquests in the east transformed the city state of Rome into an empire. By the latter part of the 2nd Century BC, the rapid expansion, massive influx of slave labor, opportunity for corruption in new provinces and the continuing development of social class disorder also brought about a distinct new era in Roman history.
While there was still considerable opposition to Roman power in the Mediterranean, the Romans suddenly found themselves as the only western superpower in the region. Ultimately, the governing of this power would soon prove difficult by the Senate and the old Republican ways.
Mismanagement of the new Spanish provinces, along with revolts and resistance to Roman authority was one source of constant strife for nearly two centuries. One such event, the Numantine War against the restless Celtiberians, from 143 to 133 BC, gave the Romans access to the interior of Hispania, but also proved that continuing expansion was to be challenged at every step. Complete subjugation of Hispania wouldn't be completed until the reign of Augustus, and only after centuries of bloody fighting. The military atmosphere in Spain during the later years of the Republic would also become a hot point for rebellious leaders (i.e. Sertorius) who sought to take advantage of ongoing political turmoil in Rome.
Slavery, Provinces and Wealth
The wars with Carthage had produced some 75,000 slaves and a great deal more were imported from eastern conquests (150,000 from Epirus alone). While Romans everywhere initially benefited from this new cheap labor, eventually the common masses found regular work hard to find as they had been effectively replaced by it. As Rome's economy shifted from one of labor by freedmen strictly into that of slavery, a new aristocracy arose. Slave trading was the new profit center for the elite, and every excess was taken to get their share. Mistreatment and poor conditions, especially in Sicily where no other province was so inundated by slaves than the plantations there, led directly to the first of several open revolts against the institution.
The First Slave War, or Servile War, broke out in Sicily in 134 BC. According to the ancient sources, a slave owner by name of Damophilus was particularly abusive to his large slave holdings. A Syrian slave, Eunus, led a revolt which would ravage Sicily for three years. Declaring himself Antiochus, he captured the city of Enna, while his activities inspired another revolt under a Cilician by name of Cleon. The numbers of the slave armies grew to a combined strength of 70,000 and they took such towns as Agrigentum, Tauromenium and Catana, and slave owners were slaughtered all over the island.
The revolt was eventually put down by Flacchus, who crucified no fewer than 20,000 in the end. This war would turn out to be only the beginning of slave insurrection in this time period. While it lasted three years, and Sicily would again be home to slave rebellions in later years, it was put down quickly with the intervention of the legions. Later rebellions, such as the one under Spartacus, would strike fear not just amongst the populace, but also into the Roman army itself.
In the east, King Attalus III of Pergamum died in 133 BC without heirs. Long maintaining friendship status with Rome, the entire nation of Pergamum, including Lydia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia was willed to Rome upon his death. By 129 BC, the entire region would be annexed as the province of Asia Minor, and without so much as a single battle, Rome gained access to more riches of the east. Pergamum itself would become one of the most prosperous and famous cities in Asia Minor, noted for its architectural monuments, its fine library, and its schools.
This vast wealth imported from Rome's newly won provinces did more than lead to slave revolts. There was a new found political cry among the tribes of Italia for equal rights as Latins. The burden of military duty was equally shared among the tribes, but equal voting rights were not. While full citizens no longer had to pay many of the state's taxes, the Italians still did, and it was the patricians who benefited the most through vast acquisition of land and estates. The age old battle between patrician, equestrian and plebeian was soon to be renewed, and some of Rome's most famous names would play center stage on world history.
The Gracchi brothers - Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus - would use the office of the Tribune and the citizen assemblies to upend the class structure and the inequity between rich, poor, citizen and non-citizen. The late 2nd century BC would shape the path of political machinations through to the end of the Republic. The political conniving of the Gracchi and the scheming of later ambitious individuals would eventually spell the doom of the Roman republican system.
Conclusion
The fall of the Roman republic was more than a single man or event. It was a culmination of several individual actions or achievements, coupled with social conditions that weighed heavily on Roman society. Additionally, massive and rapid expansion from Rome's foundation as a fledgling city 700 years earlier until the mid 1st century BC, created monumental holes in the political and governing ability of the Senate. Periods of stability were mixed in with those of near collapse, while powerful generals or inciters of the Roman mob jockeyed for position.
Beginning with the Punic Wars and Roman conquest outside of Italy, followed by massive importation of slaves, the face of Roman life was changing far more rapidly than the governing body could deal with. Political infighting was, and always would be, a common trait in any system, but even the greatest of Romans like Scipio Africanus, fell victim to the whims of politicians. The social instability that resulted from inequities in the class system gave way to the rise of demagogues like the brothers Gracchi. The use of the citizen assemblies for popular agendas tore at the very fabric of senatorial power.
Men like Marius and Sulla, with their own personal agendas and rivalries, wreaked havoc in an already weakened structure. Partisan politics of the conservative optimate senators trying to keep power with the elite class, while the tactics of the populares, who looked to the lower classes for support, divided the people and classes into what seemed like warring factions. For nearly 100 years, the climate was unpredictable at best, and brutally bloody at worst.
By the time of the rise of Gaius Julius Caesar, the stage was set for a single man to assume power and stabilize the empire. Caesar was neither the only man responsible for the fall, nor the one man who could stop it, but his role in the final demise is undeniable. He neither started the fall nor finished it, but continued a cycle of events that made its collapse irreversible. Contemporaries of the brilliant general and politician hold as much blame as the great man himself. How different events may have been without the plays for power and a bit of humility among the Senate.
Regardless, despite Caesar's short reign and policies of reform and stability, the strength of his character and personality held the Republic together only as long as he lived. His assassination and the continuing civil wars that resulted, would be required to bring necessary power to a single ruler of a single great nation: The Roman Empire. The eventual rise and adoption of Caesar's heir, Octavian, to the exalted post of Augustus spelled the real end of the Republic. He, unlike his predecessors, rose at a time when the will for the Republican system had nearly died.
While tradition and some semblance of power would remain, the foundation of government under a single figure was a requirement to continue the advancement of the empire. It was Augustus who proved to be the one man great and powerful enough to control the Senate, the mob and the legions. Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus rose above all the great Romans before him to outlast political opponents, reform a corrupt government and stabilize a system in disarray. The fall of the Republic was inevitable, but fortunately for Rome, the right man at the right time was there to step in as the first Roman Emperor.
Further Reading:
Political Violence in the Roman Republic
Please Note: This extremely large table contains a lot of information and at present is not really suitable to be viewed on mobile devices. We are currently working on a new table format, and will update this page when it is available.
Political Violence in the Roman Republic (including civil war) |
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From the Gracchi to the Death of Gaius Julius Caesar (132 - 44 BC) |
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Year (BC) |
Name |
Notable Magistracies |
Type |
Notes |
Sources |
132 |
Ti. Sempronius Gracchus |
Tr. Pl. 133 |
Mob Violence |
Killed along with hundreds of supporters in factional violence following radical legislation attempts during the election process for the year 132. |
App. Civ. War. 1.16-17; Liv. Per. 58; Plut. Ti. Grac. 19-20; Vell. Pat. 2.3 |
132 |
C. Villius |
|
Execution |
A friend of Ti. Gracchus, put to death by being locked in a cage with vipers. |
|
132 |
C. Blosius |
|
Suicide |
A friend of Ti. Gracchus. After the murder of Gracchus he fled to Asia and committed suicide. |
|
132 |
Diophanes |
|
Execution |
The Rhetorician. A friend of Ti. Gracchus; killed in the purge following the death of Gracchus. |
|
129 |
P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus |
Cos 147, 134 Cens. 142 |
Murder? |
Nature of death, whether natural or politically motivated homicide, due to opposition to the Gracchi, is uncertain. |
App. Civ. War. 1.20; Liv. Per. 59.11; Plut. C. Gracc. 10; Vell. Pat. 2.4.5 |
123 |
P. Popillius Laenas |
Cos. 132 |
Exile |
Banished by C. Gracchus for his role in executing citizens without trial in the death of Ti. Gracchus and his supporters. Recalled after the death of C. Gracchus |
Cic. Brut. 25.34, Vell. Pat. 2.7.3; Plut C. Gracc. 4 |
121 |
Antullius |
|
Murder |
Though only a servant of C. Gracchus, his murder in the forum while attempting a sacrifice opened the violence that led to the death of Gracchus himself. |
|
121 |
M. Pomponius |
|
Mob Violence |
A friend of C. Gracchus of equestrian rank. Killed while attempting to see Gracchus to safety. |
|
121 |
Licinius |
|
Mob Violence |
A friend of C. Gracchus of equestrian rank. Killed while attempting to see Gracchus to safety. |
|
121 |
C. Sempronius Gracchus |
Tr. Pl. 123, 122 |
Execution |
Execution for treason in factional mob violence along with thousands of supporters. By order of cos. L. Opimius |
App. Civ. War. 1.26; Plut. C. Grac. 1.17; Liv. Per. 61; Vell. Pat. 2.6.4 |
121 |
M. Fulvius Flaccus |
Cos. 125, Tr. Pl. 122 |
Execution |
Execution for treason in factional mob violence by order of cos. L. Opimius. |
App. Civ. War. 1.26; Plut. C. Grac. 1.17; Liv. Per. 61; Vell. Pat. 2.6.4 |
100 |
A. Nonius |
Candidate for Tr. Pl. 100 |
Murder |
Murdered by political opponents, Pr. C. Servilius Glaucia and L. Appuleius Saturninus. |
|
100 |
Q. Caecilius Metellus Numidicus |
Cos. 109, Cens. 102 |
Exile |
Exiled by Saturninus for refusing to accept an agrarian law supporting Marius' veterans. Recalled the following year. |
App. Civ. War. 1.29-32; Liv. Per. 69; Plut. Mar. 29; Vell. Pat. 2.15 |
100 |
C. Memmius |
Tr. Pl. 111, Pr. 104 or 3 |
Mob Violence |
Murdered by supporters of Saturninus, an opponent for office of tribune in 99. |
App. Civ. War. 1.32; Cic. in Cat. 4.2; Liv. Per. 69; Flor. 3.16 |
100 |
L. Appuleius Saturninus |
Tr. Pl. 102, 100, (elected for 99 but did not serve) |
Mob Violence |
Killed in the senate house by the mob following the murder of Memmius. |
App. Civ. War. 1.28-32; Plut. Mar. 30; Liv. Per. 69; Oros. 5.17; Flor. 3.16; Vell. Pat. 2.12 |
100 |
C. Servilius Glaucia |
Tr. Pl. 101, Pr. 100 |
Mob Violence |
Killed in the senate house with Saturninus by the mob following the murder of Memmius. |
App. Civ. War. 1.28-32; Val. Max. 9.7; Plut. Mar. 27, 30; Vell. Pat. 2.12; Flor. 3.16. |
100 |
C. Saufeius |
Qua. 100 |
Mob Violence |
Killed in the senate house with Saturninus by the mob following the murder of Memmius |
|
100 |
L. Equitius (Gracchus)? |
Tr. Pl. 100 |
Mob Violence |
Supposed son of T. Gracchus, killed with Saturninus. |
|
100 |
Cn. Cornelius Dolabella |
|
Mob Violence |
Killed in the senate house with Saturninus by the mob following the murder of Memmius |
|
99 |
P. Furius |
Tr. Pl. 100 |
Mob Violence |
Killed (torn apart) in mob violence for opposing the recall of Metellus Numidicus. |
|
95 |
Q. Servilius Caepio |
Cos. 106 |
Exile |
Exiled in 95 for the destruction of his army at Aurasio against the Cimbri 10 years earlier |
Cic. Brut. 44, pro Balb. 11; Val. Max 4.7, 6.9 |
92 |
P. Rutilius Rufus |
Cos. 105 |
Exile |
Exiled by political opponents for extortion. Later recalled by Sulla, though he remained away from Rome. |
|
91 |
M. Livius Drusus |
Tr. Pl. 91 |
Murder |
Murdered after proposition of radical agrarian and Italian citizenship laws. |
|
90 |
C. Aurelius Cotta | Exile | A friend of Drusus. Went into voluntary exile after the passage of the Lex Varia which would condemn those who aided the Italians in gain ing the Roman citizenship under the proposals of Drusus. Returned in the dictatorship of Sulla (c. 82 BC) | Cic. De Or. 3.11, Brut. 305; App. Civ. War. 1.37 | |
90 |
L. Calpurnius Bestia | Tr. Pl. 121 | Exile | Went into voluntary exile after the passage of the Lex Varia which would condemn those who aided the Italians in gain ing the Roman citizenship under the proposals of Drusus. | App. Civ. War. 1.37 |
90 |
L. Mummius Achaicus | Cos. 146 | Exile | Prosecuted and exiled after the passage of the Lex Varia which would condemn those who aided the Italians in gain ing the Roman citizenship under the proposals of Drusus. | App. Civ. War. 1.37; Cic. Brut. 304 |
90 |
A. Sempronius Asellio |
Pr. 89 |
Murder |
Murdered by money-lenders in dispute over loans and public interest rates. |
|
90 |
Q. Servilius (Caepio?) |
Pr. 91 |
Murder |
Killed by Italians in revolt at Asculum, setting off the Social War. (Different than the praetor Cn. Servilius Caepio who was killed in battle in the same year.) |
App. Civ. War. 1.38; Liv. Per. 72; Vell. Pat. 2.15; Oros. 5.18 |
90 |
C. Fonteius |
Leg. of Q. Servilius |
Murder |
Killed by Italians in revolt at Asculum along with Q. Servilius, setting off the Social War |
App. Civ. War. 1.38; Liv. Per. 72; Vell. Pat. 2.15; Oros. 5.18 |
89 |
Q. Varius Hybrida | Tr. Pl. 90 | Execution | Condemned to death under the provisions of his own Lex Varia of the previous year relating to support for Italian citizenship. | Cic. Brut. 305; Nat. Deor. 3.81; Val. Max. 8.6.4 |
89 |
L. Porcius Cato |
Cos. 89 |
Murder |
Either killed in battle with the Marsi (likely), or possibly murdered by C. Marius Minor. Only Orosius suggests 'foul play'. |
Liv. Per. 75; Oros. 5.17 |
88 |
Q. Pompeius Rufus Minor |
|
Mob Violence |
Son of the consul of 88 and son-in-law of Sulla. Murdered by supporters of P. Sulpicius Rufus. |
App. Civ. War. 1.56; Plut. Sull. 8; Liv. Per. 77; Plut. Mar. 29; Vell. Pat. 2.18.6 |
88 |
P. Sulpicius Rufus |
Tr. Pl. 88 |
Execution |
Proscribed by Sulla after his first march on Rome and executed. |
App. Civ. War. 1.60, Liv. Per. 77; Plut. Sull. 10; Vell. Pat. 2.19 |
88 |
P. Cornelius Cethegus |
|
Exile |
Proscribed by Sulla after his first march on Rome and exiled, switched sides and pardoned in 83. |
|
88 |
Cn. Granius |
|
Exile |
Proscribed by Sulla after his first march on Rome and exiled. |
|
88 |
Q. Granius |
|
Exile |
Proscribed by Sulla after his first march on Rome and exiled. |
|
88 |
P. Tullius Albinovanus |
|
Exile |
Proscribed by Sulla and exiled after his first march on Rome. Pardoned in 81 after betraying the officers of C. Norbanus. |
App. Civ. War. 1.60, 62, 91; Flor. 3.21 |
88 |
M. Laetorius |
|
Exile |
Proscribed by Sulla and exiled after his first march on Rome. |
|
88 |
C. Marius Major |
Cos. 107, 104, 103, 102, 101, 100, 86 |
Exile |
Proscribed by Sulla and exiled after his first march on Rome, died naturally in 86. |
App. Civ. War. 1.60; Liv. Per. 77; Plut. Sull. 10; Vell. Pat. 2.19 |
88 |
Q. Pompeius Rufus Major |
Cos. 88 |
Murder |
Killed by supporters of Cn. Pompeius Strabo after taking over Strabo's command in the Social War. |
|
88 |
M. Iunius Brutus (1) |
Pr. 88 |
Exile |
Proscribed by Sulla and exiled. |
|
88 |
C. Marius Minor (1) |
Cos. 82 |
Exile |
Proscribed by Sulla and exiled, continued as a leader of the opposing Marian faction. |
App. Civ. War. 1.94; Plut. Sull. 32, Mar. 46; Liv. Per. 86-88; Vell. Pat. 2.20.5; Flor. 3.21 |
87 |
L. Cornelius Cinna (1) |
Cos. 87 |
Exile |
Stripped of his consulship by co-consul Cn. Octavius and expelled from Rome for attempting to recall C. Marius. Cinna later returned with Marius and dominated Rome in the absence of Sulla. |
|
87 |
Cn. Octavius |
Cos. 87 |
Murder |
Murdered by Marcus Censorinus as Marius and Cinna entered the city. |
App. Civ. War. 1.64, 68-71; Plut. Mar. 42, Sull. 12; Liv. Per. 79, 80; Vell. Pat. 2.22 |
87 |
Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo Vopiscus |
Aed. 90 |
Execution |
Proscribed and executed by Marius & Cinna |
|
87 |
L. Julius Caesar |
Cos. 90 |
Execution |
Proscribed and executed by Marius & Cinna |
|
87 |
A. Serranus |
|
Execution |
Proscribed and executed by Marius & Cinna |
|
87 |
P. Lentulus |
|
Execution |
Proscribed and executed by Marius & Cinna |
|
87 |
C. Nemetorius |
|
Execution |
Proscribed and executed by Marius & Cinna |
|
87 |
M. Baebius |
|
Execution |
Proscribed and executed by Marius & Cinna |
|
87 |
P. Licinius Crassus Dives |
Cos. 97 |
Execution |
Proscribed and executed by Marius & Cinna (father of triumvir) |
App. Civ. War. 1.72; Liv. Per. 80; Plut. Crass 4; Flor. 3.21 |
87 |
P. Licinius Crassus Dives Minor |
|
Execution |
Proscribed and executed by Marius & Cinna (brother of triumvir) |
App. Civ. War. 1.72; Liv. Per. 80; Plut. Crass 4; Flor. 3.21 |
87 |
M. Antonius (The Orator) |
Cos. 99, Cens. 97 |
Execution |
Proscribed and executed by Marius & Cinna (grandfather of triumvir) |
App. Civ. War. 1.73; Liv. Per. 80; Plut. Mar. 44; Vell. Pat. 2.22 |
87 |
Q. Ancharius |
Pr. ? |
Execution |
Proscribed and executed by Marius & Cinna |
|
87 |
C. Cornutus |
Pr. 90? |
Exile |
Proscribed by Marius & Cinna but escaped due to the intervention of his slaves. |
|
87 |
L. Cornelius Merula |
Cos. Suf. 87, Fl. Dialis |
Suicide |
Committed suicide rather than face proscription by Marius & Cinna. |
|
87 |
Q. Lutatius Catulus |
Cos. 102 |
Suicide |
Committed suicide rather than face proscription by Marius & Cinna. |
|
86 |
Sex. Lucinus |
|
Execution |
A Senator executed by Marius. Thrown from the Tarpeian rock. |
|
86 or 85 |
L. Valerius Flaccus |
Cos. Suf. 86 |
Murder |
Sent as an opposition commander to Sulla against Mithridates, murdered by his own legate, C. Flavius Fimbria. |
App. Civ. Wars 1.75, Mith. 52; Vell. Pat. 2.24; Liv. Per. 82; Plut. Sull. 12, 23 |
85 |
Sex. Lucilius |
Tr. Pl. 86 |
Execution |
Thrown from the Tarpeian rock by Tr. Pl. Publius Laenas |
|
84 |
C. Flavius Fimbria |
Legate of L. Valerius Flaccus |
Suicide |
Murdered L. Valerius Flaccus and took over his army in Asia. Committed suicide after facing defeat by Sulla. |
Liv. Per. 82; Plut. Sull 25, App. Mith. 60; Vell. Pat. 2.24 |
84 |
L. Cornelius Cinna (2) |
Cos. 87, 86, 85, 94 |
Mutiny |
Killed in a mutiny by his army as Sulla approached Rome following the defeat of Mithridates. |
|
83 |
Q. Antonius |
Pr. 84? |
Murder |
Killed while governing Sardinia by Sullan legate L. Philippus. |
|
82 |
P. Antistius |
Tr. Pl. 86 |
Execution |
Executed by Pr. L. Iunius Brutus on the order of Cos. C. Marius Minor while besieged by Sulla in Praeneste. His wife Calpurnia committed suicide shortly thereafter. |
App. Civ. Wars. 1.88; Vell. Pat. 2.26; Liv. Per. 86; Plut. Pomp. 9 |
82 |
C. Papirius Carbo Arvina |
Tr. Pl. 90 |
Execution |
Executed by Pr. L. Iunius Brutus on the order of Cos. C. Marius Minor while besieged by Sulla in Praeneste. |
|
82 |
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus |
Cos. 94 |
Execution |
Executed by Pr. L. Iunius Brutus on the order of Cos. C. Marius Minor while besieged by Sulla in Praeneste. |
|
82 |
Q. Mucius Scaevola |
Cos. 95, Pont. Max. 89 |
Execution |
Executed by Pr. L. Iunius Brutus on the order of Cos. C. Marius Minor while besieged by Sulla in Praeneste. |
|
82 |
C. Marius Minor (2) |
Cos. 82 |
Suicide |
Committed suicide while beseiged by Sullan forces at Praeneste after giving the order for several Sulla supporters in Rome. (previously exiled by Sulla in 88) |
App. Civ. War. 1.94; Plut. Sull. 32, Mar. 46; Liv. Per. 88; Vell. Pat. 27.4; Flor. 3.21 |
82 |
M. Iunius Brutus (2) |
Pr. 88 |
Suicide |
Committed suicide while in service to Cn. Papirius Carbo rather than face capture by Cn. Pompeius Magnus in Sicily. (Previously exiled by Sulla in 88) |
|
82 |
A. Claudius |
|
Battle |
Killed in battle with Sulla at the Colline Gates outside Rome. |
|
82 |
Venuleius | Triumviri Cap. 82 | Execution | A senator. Proscribed by Sulla. | Flor. Epit. 2.9 |
81 |
C. Antipater |
Legate of C. Norbanus |
Murder |
Betrayed and murdered by fellow Marian legate P. Tullius Albinovanus in order for Albinovanus to secure a pardon from Sulla. |
|
81 |
Flavius Fimbria |
Legate of C. Norbanus |
Murder |
Betrayed and murdered by fellow Marian legate P. Tullius Albinovanus in order for Albinovanus to secure a pardon from Sulla. (brother of C. Flavius Fimbria killed in 84) |
|
81 |
C. Norbanus |
Cos. 83 |
Suicide |
After defeat by Sulla, either killed or committed suicide in Rhodes. |
App. Civ. Wars. 1.91; Liv. Per. 89; Vell. Pat. 2.25; Plut. Sull. 27 |
81 |
Telesinus |
Legate of Cn. Papirius Carbo |
Battle |
Killed at battle of Colline Gates against Sulla |
|
81 |
Albinus |
Legate of Cn. Papirius Carbo |
Battle |
Killed at battle of Colline Gates against Sulla |
|
81 |
C. Marcius Censorinus |
Legate of Cn. Papirius Carbo |
Execution |
Captured and executed after the battle of Colline Gates against Sulla |
|
81 |
C. Carrinas |
Pr. 82 |
Execution |
Captured and executed after the battle of Colline Gates against Sulla |
|
81 |
L. Iunius Brutus Damassipus |
Pr. 82 |
Execution |
The praetor who killed several Sullans in 82 by order of C. Marius Minor. Killed in battle of Colline Gates against Sulla or executed after capture. |
|
81 |
Q. Valerius |
|
Execution |
Executed by Pompeius Magnus after the defeat of Carbo in Africa. |
|
81 |
Cn. Papirius Carbo |
Cos 85, 84, 82 |
Execution |
Executed by Pompeius Magnus in Africa. |
|
81 |
Q. Aurelius |
|
Execution |
1 of 600 otherwise unnamed (according to Plutarch) proscribed and killed by order of Sulla. |
|
81 |
Unknown |
|
|
According to Appian, Sulla proscribed some 90 senators, 15 consulars, and 2600 knights. |
|
81 |
Q. Caecilius |
|
Murder |
Proscribed and murdered by Catiline, his brother-in-law. Added to proscription roles after the fact. |
Cic. de Petit. Cons. 2; Ascon. in Tog. Cand. p. 84; Plut. Sull. 32, Cic. 10 |
81 |
M. Marius Gratidianus |
Pr. 85? |
Murder |
Proscribed and killed by Catiline. |
|
81 |
Q. Lucretius Ofella |
candidate for cos. 81 |
Execution |
Killed by order of Sulla after refusing to step down from consular candidacy for which he was legally ineligible. |
|
81 |
Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus |
Cos. 87 |
Battle |
Killed in or after battle with Pompeius Magnus |
|
78 |
? Granius |
Decurio of Puteoli |
Execution |
Killed by Sulla for failing to pay a tax for the restoration of the capitol in Rome |
Plut. Sulla 37; Val. Max. 9.3 |
77 |
M. Iunius Brutus |
Tr. Pl. 83, Legate of Lepidus |
Execution |
Father of M. Iunius Brutus (assassin of Caesar). Killed by a Geminius on the order of Pompeius Magnus during the civil insurrection of Lepidus. |
|
77 |
M. Aemilius Lepidus |
Cos. 78 |
Exile |
Expelled from office and Italy by consular colleague Q. Lutatius Catulus for civil insurrection. Died of natural causes in Sardinia after his forces were defeated and before he could be captured. |
|
72 |
Q. Sertorius |
Pr. 83 |
Murder |
As leader of an opposition faction in Hispania to the Sullans in Rome, was murdered by or at the order of his legate M. Perpenna Vento. |
App. Civ. War 1.113; Liv. Per. 96; Plut. Sert. 26; Vell Pat. 2.30 |
72 |
M. Perpenna Vento |
Pr. ? |
Execution |
Put to death by order of Pompeius Magnus after the defeat of Sertorian forces. Originally proscribed by Sulla. |
App. Civ. War 1.115; Liv. Per. 96; Plut. Sert. 27; Vell Pat. 2.30 |
63 |
A. Fulvius |
|
Execution |
A Senator. Put to death by his father for participation in the Catiline Conspiracy. |
|
63 |
P. Cornelius Lentulus Sura |
Cos. 71, Pr. 63 |
Execution |
Executed by order of Cicero for complicity in the Catiline conspiracy |
App. Civ. Wars. 2.4-6; Sall. Cat. 55; Liv. Per. 102; Plut. Cat. Min 26, Cic. 22; Cass. Dio.37.39; Vell. Pat. 2.34.4 |
63 |
C. Cornelius Cethegus |
|
Execution |
Executed by order of Cicero for complicity in the Catiline conspiracy |
App. Civ. Wars. 2.4-6; Sall. Cat. 55; Liv. Per. 102; Plut. Cic. 22; Vell. Pat. 2.34.4 |
63 |
L. Statilius |
|
Execution |
Executed by order of Cicero for complicity in the Catiline conspiracy |
|
63 |
P. Gabinius Capito (C. Gabinius Cimber?) |
|
Execution |
Executed by order of Cicero for complicity in the Catiline conspiracy |
|
63 |
M. Caeparius |
|
Execution |
Executed by order of Cicero for complicity in the Catiline conspiracy. Additionally, 4 conspirators were ordered to be arrested and/or convicted in absentia but the actual fate is unknown: L. Cassius Longinus, P. Furius, P. Umbrenus, T. Annius. |
|
62 |
C. Manlius (Mallius) |
Legate of Catiline |
Battle |
Killed in battle with Cos. M. Petreius. |
|
62 |
L. Sergius Catilina |
Pr. 68 |
Battle |
Killed in battle with Cos. M. Petreius. |
Sall. Cat. 61; Liv. Per. 102; Cass. Dio.37.39; Vell. Pat. 2.35.5 |
59 |
L. Vettius |
|
Murder |
An equestrian partisan of Cicero in the Catiline affair. Murdered in prison after giving testimony in the senate regarding a conspiracy to kill Caesar and Pompeius Magnus. |
App. Civ. Wars. 2.12; Plut. Luc. 42; Cass. Dio. 38.9, Cic., Att 2.24, Flac 96, Sest 132, Vatin 24-26; Suet. Caes. 17, 20.5 |
58 |
M. Tullius Cicero |
Cos. 63 |
Exile |
Exiled by the machinations of the Tr. Pl. Clodius for his execution of citizens without trial in the Catiline affair. Recalled the following year. |
App. Civ. Wars. 2.15,16; Liv. Per. 103.9; Plut. Cic. 32; Cass. Dio 38.17; Vell. Pat. 2.45 |
52 |
P. Clodius Pulcher |
Tr. Pl. 58, Aed. 56 |
Mob Violence |
Murdered by his street gang rival T. Annius Milo or his partisans. |
App. Civ. Wars. 2.21; Liv. Per. 107; Plut. Cic. 35; Cass. Dio 40.48; Vell Pat. 47.4 |
52 |
T. Annius Milo (1) |
Tr. Pl. 57 |
Exile |
Exiled for the murder of P. Clodius. |
App. Civ. Wars. 2.24; Liv. Per. 107; Plut. Cic. 35; Cass. Dio 40.53; Vell Pat. 47.4 |
52 |
A. Gabinius |
Tr. Pl. 66, Pr. 61, Cos. 59 |
Exile |
Exiled for making indiscretionary war and accepting bribes while proconsul in Syria. Recalled by Gaius Julius Caesar in 49/48. |
|
52 |
P. Plautius Hypsaeus |
Tr. Pl. 54 |
Exile |
A supporter of Clodius in the street warfare between he and Milo, exiled for election bribery. Recalled by Gaius Julius Caesar in 49/48. |
|
52 |
C. Memmius Gemellus |
Tr. Pl. 66, Pr. 58 |
Exile |
Exiled for election bribery. Recalled by Gaius Julius Caesar in 49/48. |
|
52 |
M. Aemilius Scaurus |
Pr. 56 |
Exile |
Exiled for election bribery. Recalled by Gaius Julius Caesar in 49/48. |
|
52 |
T. Munatius Plancus Bursa |
Tr. Pl. 52 |
Exile |
Condemned as a supporter of Clodius for his role in the street violence between he and Milo. Restored by Caesar c. 48. |
Cass. Dio 40.55; Plut. Pomp. 55; Cic. ad Att. VI.1, ad Fam. XII.18, Phil. VI.4, X.10, XI. 6, XII.8, XIII. 12 |
52 |
Q. Pompeius Rufus Minor |
Tr. Pl. 52 |
Exile |
Condemned as a supporter of Clodius for his role in the street violence between he and Milo. |
Cass. Dio 40.55; Cic. ad Q. Fr. III.2, ad Att. IV.16. |
49 |
Q. Fulgenius |
|
Battle |
Caesarian officer killed at Ilerda, Hispania |
|
49 |
Ti. Caecilius |
|
Battle |
Pompeian Primus Pilus killed at Ilerda, Hispania |
|
49 |
C. Scribonius Curio |
Tr. Pl. 50 |
Battle |
A supporter of Caesar, killed in battle against the Pompeian general P. Attius Varus and the Numidian King Juba in Africa. |
App. Civ. Wars 2.45; Cass. Dio 41.41; Caes. Civ. War 2.42; Suet. Caes. 36 |
48 |
L. Racilius |
Tr. Pl. 56 |
Mutiny |
Failed conspirator against the Caesarian governor of Hispania Q. Cassius Longinus. Executed by Longinus. |
|
48 |
L. Iuventius Laterensis |
Legate of Q. Cassius Longinus |
Mutiny |
Failed conspirator against the Caesarian governor of Hispania Q. Cassius Longinus. Executed by Longinus. |
|
48 |
Annius Scapula |
Legate of Q. Cassius Longinus |
Mutiny |
Failed conspirator against the Caesarian governor of Hispania Q. Cassius Longinus. Executed by Longinus. |
|
48 |
Minutius Silo |
|
Mutiny |
A client of Racilius. Failed conspirator against the Caesarian governor of Hispania Q. Cassius Longinus. Executed by Longinus. |
|
48 |
Munatius Plancus |
|
Mutiny |
Failed conspirator against the Caesarian governor of Hispania Q. Cassius Longinus. Executed by Longinus. |
|
48 |
T. Vasius |
|
Mutiny |
Failed conspirator against the Caesarian governor of Hispania Q. Cassius Longinus. Executed by Longinus. |
|
48 |
L. Mergilio |
|
Mutiny |
Failed conspirator against the Caesarian governor of Hispania Q. Cassius Longinus. Executed by Longinus. |
|
48 |
L. Licinius Squillus |
|
Mutiny |
Failed conspirator against the Caesarian governor of Hispania Q. Cassius Longinus. Executed by Longinus. |
|
48 |
Manilius Tusculus |
|
Mutiny |
Failed conspirator against the Caesarian governor of Hispania Q. Cassius Longinus. Executed by Longinus. |
|
48 |
L. Calpurnius Bibulus |
Cos. 59 |
Battle |
Died of sickness while in command of the Republican fleet in the Adriatic. Despite "natural causes" Caesar suggests that Bibulus' death was due to the stress of his command in the civil war. |
|
48 |
T. Annius Milo (2) |
Tr. Pl. 57 |
Execution |
Killed by Pr. Q. Pedius after declaring himself a legate for Pompeius Magnus in the civil war. |
|
48 |
M. Caelius Rufus |
Pr. 48 |
Execution |
Provoked riots in Rome, fled the city and joined Milo. Killed by Pr. Q. Pedius. |
|
48 |
V. Flaccus |
|
Battle |
Son of Pr. L. Flaccus. Caesarian officer killed at Dyrrachium |
|
48 |
A. Granius (Gravius?) |
|
Battle |
Caesarian officer of equestrian rank killed at Dyrrachium. |
|
48 |
F. Tuticanus Gallus |
|
Battle |
Caesarian officer, a senator's son, killed at Dyrrachium. |
|
48 |
C. Felginus |
|
Battle |
Caesarian officer of equestrian rank killed at Dyrrachium. |
|
48 |
M. Sacrativir |
|
Battle |
Caesarian officer of equestrian rank killed at Dyrrachium. |
|
48 |
Crastinus |
|
Battle |
Caesarian officer killed at Pharsalus |
|
48 |
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus |
Cos. 54 |
Battle |
Pompeian general killed at Pharsalus |
|
48 |
Cn. Pompeius Magnus |
Cos. 70, 55, 52 |
Murder |
Executed by agents of the Egyptian King Ptolemy XIII after escaping from Pharsalus |
App. Civ. Wars 2.85; Liv. Per. 112, Plut. Caes. 48, Pomp. 79; Cass. Dio 42.4; Caes. Civ. War. 3.104; Vell. Pat. 2.53 |
48 |
L. Cornelius Lentulus Crus |
Cos. 49 |
Murder |
Followed Pompeius Magnus to Egypt and was captured and executed by Ptolemy. |
Caes. Civ. War 3.104; Val. Max. 1.8-9; Oros. 6.15; Plut. Pomp. 80 |
47 |
Sex. Julius Caesar |
|
Mutiny |
While in command of Caesarian forces in Syria, killed by his soldiers at the instigation of rival Q. Caecilius Bassus. |
Caes. Alex. War 66; Cass. Dio. 47.26; App. Civ. War. 3.77; Liv. Per. 114 |
47 |
C. Consconius |
Tr. Pl. 59, Pr. ? |
Mutiny |
Killed in a mutiny of Caesar's army at Campania. |
|
47 |
Galba |
Pr.? |
Mutiny |
Killed in a mutiny of Caesar's army at Campania. |
|
46 |
M. Porcius Cato |
Tr. Pl. 62, Pr. 54 |
Suicide |
Committed suicide in Utica rather than allow capture by Caesar during the civil war. |
App. Civ. Wars 2.99; Liv. Per. 114; Plut. Cat. Min. 70-71; Cass. Dio 43.11 |
46 |
M. Petreius |
Legate of Pompeius Magnus, Pr.? |
Suicide |
Committed suicide with Numidian King Juba after their defeat to Caesar at Thapsus. |
App. Civ. War 2.101; Suet. Caes. 75; Caes. (Hirt.) Afr.War 94; Liv. Per. 114 |
46 |
L. Afranius |
Cos. 60 |
Murder |
Captured and killed by Caesarian forces (under P. Sittius) after initially escaping from Thapsus. (Possibly ordered by Gaius Julius Caesar) |
Caes (Hirt.). Afr.War 95; Suet. Caes. 75; Cass.Dio. 43.12; Liv. Per. 114 |
46 |
F. Cornelius Sulla |
Qua. 54 |
Murder |
Son of the dictator. Captured with L. Afranius and executed by Caesarian adherent P. Sittius or his soldiers. (Possibly ordered by Gaius Julius Caesar) |
Caes (Hirt.). Afr.War 95; Suet. Caes. 75; Cass.Dio. 43.12; Liv. Per. 114 |
46 |
L. Julius Caesar |
Qua.46 |
Murder |
Captured with L. Afranius and executed by Caesarian adherent P. Sittius or his soldiers. (Possibly ordered by Gaius Julius Caesar) |
Suet. Caes. 75; Cass.Dio. 43.12; Liv. Per. 114; Plut. Cat. Min. 66 |
46 |
Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio |
Cos. 52 |
Battle |
Killed in a fleet engagement after escaping capture by Caesar's army at Thapsus, Africa. |
App. Civ. Wars 2.100; Cass. Dio 43.29; Caes (Hirt). Afr. War 96 |
46 |
Licinius Damassipus |
|
Battle |
Killed along with Metellus Scipio in a fleet engagement after escaping capture by Caesar's army at Thapsus, Africa. |
|
46 |
L. Torquatus |
Pr. 49 |
Battle |
Killed along with Metellus Scipio in a fleet engagement after escaping capture by Caesar's army at Thapsus, Africa. |
|
46 |
Plaetorius Rustianus |
|
Battle |
Killed along with Metellus Scipio in a fleet engagement after escaping capture by Caesar's army at Thapsus, Africa. |
|
46 |
M. Claudius Marcellus |
Cos. 51 |
Murder |
An anti-Caesarian living in voluntary exile after the defeat of the Pompeians, was recalled to Rome by Caesar on the efforts of his kinsman C. Marcellus. Murdered en route by his own servant P. Magius Chilo. Though this may be completely apolitical in motivation the suspicion of Caesar is evident enough to include him here. |
|
45 |
P. Atius Varus |
Pr.? |
Battle |
Killed in or executed after the battle of Munda by Caesarians. |
App. Civ. War 2.105; Caes (Hirt) Span. War 31; Vell. Pat. 2.55.4 |
45 |
T. Labienus |
Tr. Pl. 63 |
Battle |
Killed in or executed after the battle of Munda by Caesarians. |
App. Civ. War 2.105; Caes (Hirt) Span. War 31; Vell. Pat. 2.55.4 |
45 |
T. Quintius Scapula |
Legate of Pompeius in Hispania |
Suicide |
Committed suicide by burning himself on a pyre after defeat to Caesar at the battle of Munda. |
|
45 |
Cn. Pompeius Magnus Minor |
|
Murder |
Captured and executed by Caesarians (Caesennius. Lento) after the battle of Munda |
App. Civ. War 2.105; Liv. Per. 115; Cass. Dio. 43.40; Caes (Hirt) Span. War 39; Vell. Pat. 2.55.4 |
45 |
C. Didius |
Legate of Caesar |
Battle |
Killed in battle with the Lusitanian army of Pompeius Magnus Minor. |
|
44 |
L. Caesetius Flavus |
Tr. Pl. 44 |
Exile |
Deposed from office of tribune by Dict. Gaius Julius Caesar for public opposition to symbols of monarchy. (Removal of the diadem from Caesar's statues). Recalled after the assassination of Caesar by C. Cassius Longinus and M. Iunius Brutus. |
App. Civ. War 2.108; 122; Liv. Per. 116; Plut. Caes. 61; Cass. Dio 44.9; Suet. Caes. 79 |
44 |
C. Epidius Marullus |
Tr. Pl. 44 |
Exile |
Deposed from office of tribune by Dict. Gaius Julius Caesar for public opposition to symbols of monarchy. (Removal of the diadem from Caesar's statues). Recalled after the assassination of Caesar by C. Cassius Longinus and M. Iunius Brutus. |
App. Civ. War 2.108; 122; Liv. Per. 116; Plut. Caes. 61; Cass. Dio 44.9; Suet. Caes. 79 |
| 44 |
Gaius Julius Caesar |
Pont. Max. 63; Cos. 59, 48, 46, 45, 44; Dict. 48, 46, 45; Dict. Perp. 44 |
Murder |
Assassinated by members of the senate for aspirations to monarchy. |
App. Civ. War 2.117; Liv. Per. 116; Plut. Caes. 66-67; Cass. Dio 44.19; Suet. Caes. 82; Vell. Pat. 56.3 |
Did you know...
It took the Roman historian Livy (d. 17 AD) forty years to write his 142-book History of Rome.
Did you know...
"Caesar" is a title of imperial character. It derives from the cognomen of Gaius Julius Caesar. The change from being a familial name to an imperial title can be loosely dated to AD 68, the so-called "Year of the Four Emperors".